Nutrients

 Nutrients are very important as without proper nutrients, we would not function properly.

The common nutrients are:
Carbohydrates, Lipids and Proteins.
Vitamins and Mineral ions.
Fibres and Water.

Nutrients are gathered from the foods that we eat, let's start off with the most common ones carbohydrates, lipids and proteins, these come from our pasta, potatoes and breads, these carbohydrates are often very starchy, these carbohydrates give us energy which is used for us to move around and conduct chemical reactions in our bodies.

Next are lipids, which are the other names for 'fats', found in fatty food and oils, these fats are commonly found in seeds, dairy products, and types of oily fish.
They also provide energy to our bodies, but compared to carbohydrates this energy source is more long-term since fat can be stored for longer compared to carbohydrates, they also keep us warm since under our skin is a layer of fat, and they keep our organs safe.

Plugs and wires

One important thing about electricity is the plugs and wires, and when you need to repair them, you might notice that the different coloured wires are inside a plug.

The power that comes from the national grid is the main power supply, the current of the mains is an alternating current with around 240 volts flowing into households, keep in mind that the voltage may differ between, which goes into our sockets in our homes.

Three wires are in a plug, the live one, the grounded or earth wire and the neutral one, with all of them having an insulating plastic covering the copper wires.

Now the way we differentiate the wires so that we don't shock ourselves is the colours, brown being live meaning all the voltage flowing through the plug is going through the brown one and has the potential difference of 230 volts, the blue one is the neutral one that will complete the circuit, and lastly is the earth or ground wire, which is a stripped green wire and means 

AC & DC Current

An Alternating current which is commonly referered as AC, which is a type of current that will alternate between a positive and negitive charge, and this charge will fluctuate between voltages.
If your house is being supplied with 240 volts then the AC current will fluctuate between 240v to -240v, and it will aternate between the voltages on a set timer.

While a direct current or DC current is either a positive or negitive charge, since the positive charge is consistant, the most common use is in which makes it good for cells and batteries.

We can get graphs of the potental difference from the current is via a Oscilloscope, which measures the potental difference a current is producing by displaying it on a monitor, these monitors display the current in a wave.

How Temperature and PH levels affects the rate of reactions

Enzymes rely on temperature as the heat helps speed the reactivity, but for Enxymes to work efficiently they need to be at a stable temperature,
otherwise, if you keep increasing the heat it may break apart the bonds that hold the Enzyme together thus making the Enzyme change its active site which is where the Enzymes do their reactants if the shape change is too drastic then the Enzyme might not even help Catalyze by the Enzyme being unable to bind to the Substate.

The name of an Enzyme that has been hit with too much heat is called a Denatured Enzyme, if this does happen it is permanent and cannot be undone, Enzymes also have an optimal temperature and will work with high efficiency at a certain temperature, this is why our bodies always are 37.5 celsius.

Another deciding factor for Enzymes to be more efficient in catalysing is the PH level, which is a measurement of acidity in a substance, if the PH level is too high the rate the Enzyme can work decreases, and if the PH level too low, the Enzyme will also to be able to work at maximum efficiency. 
These changes in PH affect the Enzyme, since too low or high PH levels, change the active site of the Enzyme, sometimes it will still work but since the active site has been changed, how well the Enzyme can fit into the substrate will be worse.

Our bodies work best around 7 PH, but our stomachs work best around 2 PH since the insides of our stomachs are extremely acidic.

The National Grid

The National Grid is the network that distributes all the electricity in a city, usually the power comes from power stations, which normally produce lots of heat that then becomes thermal energy which then is turned into electricity.

The thing about power stations is that the amount of electricity they make is based on the amount of demand, the demand increases in the afternoon and evening, and since we use so much electricity in our daily lives, the power stations need to have extra capacity just in case, so often the stations run at much lower rate so that if there's a spike in electrical consumption they can output more power to satisfy the demand, which they can't do if they are running at high rates.

As we know the equation P=VT is power = voltage multiplied by time, but when high amounts of current flow through a wire, it causes the wire to heat up, this heat is then lost power, but if we need to transport this power all around the city or even the whole country this loss of power is extremely decremental.
But if we run a very low current, which is more efficient that would mean our voltage is going to be very high, meaning when we want to move the electricity around the country via the power lines and pylons we would need a way of increasing the voltage.

This is where Step-up transformers come in, they take the voltage from the power station and then turn up the voltage up to 400,000 volts then the cables transport it around the country.
Then after that, we would need a step-down transformer since 400,000 volts flowing into your house is too much if we were to pump that amount of voltage into a civilian house, firstly it would be very dangerous as if our devices or appliances they would explode having a high chance of losing lives.
In order to keep us safe from the high voltages is that we use a step-down transformer, that turns the 400,000 volts to roughly 230 volts. 

Ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds are different from ionic-bonded atoms.

As normal ionicly bonded atoms, they will lose their electrons and another element will gain them, causing the two atoms to be electrostatically attracted to each other. However, ionic compounds, have more than two atoms bonded together.

When this happens, the atoms will form in a sort of checkerboard pattern. If many atoms bond like this, the compound will be cube-shaped, which we named 'regular lattice structures." These structures will often be drawn or depicted as the cube shape. Still, with small spheres on its surfaces, another way we can depict this is we use a diagram named the "ball and stick diagram", which are similar but they instead draw or model each atom connected via a stick.

Something interesting about ionic compounds is that they have very high melting and boiling points, and they can conduct electricity, but most of the time we have to dissolve them in water or melt them down for electric conductivity, like putting salt in water to make the water more conductive, but what matters is the amount of charged particles

The boiling and melting points change depending on the strength of the bonds of atoms held together, and if the bonds in ionic compounds are very strong, more energy is required to break apart the bonds.

But if you want the ionic compound to conduct electricity, it first needs to have charged particles, if you take any solid it will be tough because all the bonds are stagnant, but if it melted or dissolved then the ions in the solid are free to move and conduct. 

In ionic compounds, one element would have to lose and one would have to gain an electron, for example, if you wish to write aa Sodium bonding with a Chlorine atom, which the Sodium has a +1 charge while the Chlorine has a -1 charge. 
So to have them bond, the Sodium would lose the electron while the Chlorine would gain one, thus, you would write this equation as NaCl+.  

But what happens if the atoms need more electrons to bond, what about Magnesium and Chloride, Magnesium needs to lose 2 electrons since it is in group 2 of the periodic table.
So the Magnesium loses 2 electrons to be a 2+ ion, then we need to balance it out, so we must take two Chlorine ions since one ion is only a -1, so if we were to write this out it would be MgCl2. 

Complex compounds like Calcium Hydroxide or Aluminium Sulfate are, more complicated as these ions aren't single elements so their atomic numbers or electron amounts are not on the table.

Instead, we will have to memorise it, for the Calcium Hydroxide is OH-, while the Aluminium Sulfate is SO42-.
Now we can look at the elements by themselves, Calcium is group 2 of the periodic table which means that Calcium or Ca has a +2 charge, while hydrogen is a -1 charge. 

Similar to the Chlorine atom, a single Hydroxide has a -1 charge, which means we need to put two of them in the CaOH- equation instead of one, the written formula for this is:
Ca(OH)2.
The reason why we put the 2 outside the brackets is because it means whatever is inside the brackets there is 2 of them. 

Now to tackle the Aluminium Sulfate, the Aluminium has a +3 charge, while the Sulfide ion has a -2 charge, this makes it a little bit more complicated because when two compounds bond they need to have the same amount of electrons.

But the problem is we can't add another electron to the Sulfate, in order for this to work we would need to first find the lowest multiple of both of the charges, which 3*2 is 6, so six is the smallest multiple we can find. 

So in order for this to work out we need 3 * 2 to get us 6, which we will take two Aluminium both of which are +3 charge, and three Sulfate ions, which means we have our 3 * 2.

So we would write this as: Al2(SO4)3. 

That's how we would write it, as we need 2 Al atoms the smaller scale 2 is there, then there is the SO4, which means the chemical writing for Sulfide, then the small 3 at the end means that there are three of the Sulfate ions. 

Other ionically bonded compounds are: NO3- for a Nitrate ion, a carbonate ion which is CO3^2-, and lastly is the Ammonium ion which is NH4+. 

Enzymes

For living organisms to survive, they need to carry out chemical reactions, which are often very slow, so to speed them up we normally apply heat to quicken the reaction.

Now, using heat has its side effects. If we use too much heat, the cells might get damaged, and it might also speed up reactions that we don't want.

In chemical and biological applications, Catalysts are substances that increase the rate that something happens and are not used up or changed,
Enzymes are biological catalysts made by living organisms. They are proteins, which are long chains of amino acids that can bend and fold, making them unique.

Enzymes work by taking a large structure, which we call a substrate, and breaking it down into smaller structures named products.
They can also do it in reverse, where they convert products into structures.

They also have a special region in them, which they can specify what they want to catalyze, and if the substrate doesn't match the catalysts, then it won't help catalyze the substrate.

There are two ways scientists thought it worked one way is the lock and key model, and then the induced fit model.
Before we figured out the induced fit model, we thought the catalyst needed to fit perfectly to the substrate being a 100% perfect match both ways, similar to what a lock and key is where the key has to be the same in order for the lock to open.

We do know now what the Enzyme will slightly reshape itself in order to help the substrate fit better, the Enzyme 'compliments' the substrate by fitting better,