Light & Electron Microscopes

 There is a difference between Light and Electron microscopes, most microscopes we use are light microscopes which are lighter in weight cheaper to purchase and easier to use than electronic ones. But that comes with some drawbacks, as we can only see stuff that is 0.2 micrometres so our resolution can only go to 0.2 micrometres because light has a wavelength of 0.2 micrometres and we use the light to focus on the subject, 
and if we try to zoom in further than 0.2 micrometres it will be unfocused and blurry.

While electron microscopes are heavy, expensive and hard to use, and only really used by scientists, election microscopes use electrons instead of light which enables you to zoom in until 0.1 nanometers, electron microscopes have a nearly 2000x zoom compared to light microscopes.
They are normally used to look at sub-cellular structures, so you can look at the nucleus of cells along with the mitochondria, but they also have no colour and thus are black and white since that there is no light going into the subject. 

Conduction, Convection & Radiation

If you heat up any object, energy is transferred between the heat source and then into the object's thermal energy store, thus increasing its temperature.

Heat is transferred by Conduction via solids, Radiation via empty space or the air, and finally, Convection by liquids.

For objects to be heated up using conduction, vibrating particles transfer energy to other particles via kinetic energy, since they are being heated up and the heat excites them causing them to move extremely fast.
causing heat to disperse throughout the object, this is why when you heat up a metal rod.
Heat creeps around and eventually causes the metal bar to roughly be the same temperature regardless of where the heat is coming from. 

Different materials can take in various amounts of heat depending on their thermal energy stored, and how well they can conduct heat is their Thermal conductivity, so metals have better thermal conductivity compared to something like plastic which has low thermal conductivity.
That is why we use plastic as insulators for heat in tumblers and bottles when storing hot or cold water, as it traps heat better.

Let’s take a beaker fill it with water and put a Bunsen burner below it when you heat up the liquid or gas, the particles at the bottom will start moving around, and they naturally want to move to a place cooler, the fluid or gas in the warmer region starts to heat up and expand.
Let's go back to the beaker, if we heat up the bottom with the bunsen burner the warm particles at the bottom will want to rise up and get to the cooler region which is the top of the beaker

Conservation of Energy

The first law of Thermodynamics is that energy can be transferred, stored and dissipated but cannot be created nor destroyed.

For example, when you plug your phone into a socket to charge it, electrical energy is turned into chemical energy in your phone's battery. And using the chemical energy that was being charged by the electrical energy from the socket to power things such as the screen which turns the chemical energy into light energy, or play sounds by converting it into sound energy. 

But you can never have 100% energy transfer, it's because there will always be wasted energy.
Most wasted energy is lost due to the energy generating heat, like when you are charging something your phone gets warmer, or a car tyre is spinning rapidly causing friction which causes the tyre to get warmer.  

There are types of systems: closed and open systems. First, we have to select one. Let's say we take your phone as a system. The system would be the phone, while the outside world would be named the "environment." In this case, the phone would be an open system because it can be affected by the environment or outside factors. Because this is an open system, energy can flow between the environment and the system.

While a closed system stops all outside factors or the environment entirely.
If you put your phone in a sealed jar. Everything inside the jar is the system, and because it is in a sealed jar it is not affected by outside forces or environment factors.
So when the phone heats up, the heat is trapped inside the jar and it stays within the system.

Balancing Chemical Equations

Chemical equations are very important for written Chemistry, for example, if we take Methane + Oxygen -> Carbon Dioxide + Water, the underlined words are products, while the non-underlined are not.

Now to write this as chemical symbols you would write it as:
c
the Ch4 is because there is 1 carbon and 4 hydrogen. For the O2 it is because O2 is 2 oxygens.
While the products CO2 + H2O, has the CO2 has 1 carbon and 2 oxygen, while H2O has 2 hydrogen and 1 oxygen. 

Now if you want to "balance" these equations, it is mainly done by trial and error, it is because you can't change the subscripts because it changes the whole element to a completely different one.
But we can change how many of the elements there can be, to balance the
Ch4 + O2  -> CO2 + H2O.
In order to make the equation "balanced" we must match the number of oxygen atoms at both sides.
So if we look at the reactants we might notice 

Microscopes

Light microscopes are highly important in Biology because they allow you to see the smallest things like cells.

First lets start with the base, which connects to the arm, then there's the "Stage" which is where we put our objects on to examine them. 
Usually there's 3 objective lenses, with different magnification strengths, then there's the lens at the top which is where our eye goes and has a fixed magnification, then the tube which goes from the lens at the top to the lenses at the objective lenses,
then the coarse and fine focusing nobs to focus the lenses on the object on stage.  

Let's get this straight, there are two things that are important when looking through the magnifying glass (there's more but that doesn't matter right now), mainly the "image" and the "object".
When referring to the object you are usually referring to the object or sample you are looking at on the stage. So if we have let's say onion cells on the stage, that would be considered to be the "object" or "sample". 

The term "Image" comes from the image that we see when we look down, we see the individual cells, and what we see in the lens is the image. 

Light Microscopes work by shining or reflecting light onto the subject.
Or by using an adjustable mirror below the stage or by turning on a lamp at the bottom to illuminate the clear stage. 

First, the light shoots up towards and through the sample, then through the objective lenses, then through the tube then into the lens where our eyes are.
This, in turn, is necessary for the light to bounce off objects for our eyes to see, magnification happens when you magnify the object, so an x100 magnification means the object is magnified 100 times. 

Resolution means how detailed the image is, so if an object has a terrible resolution it is very blurry, while a good resolution is good when it is crystal clear and very sharp. 

Differences Between Compounds, Molecules & Mixtures

 Mainly elements fall into 3 categories, Molecules, Mixtures and Compounds.

Molecules refer to elements bonded via chemical bonds, a good example of this is Oxygen, which is bonded together so they are classified as a molecule, but these molecules can also be made of multiple different elements, such as water which is H20, others being Hydrogen, Chlorine and Carbon-dioxide. Molecules need 2 or more elements in order to be considered a molecule.

A Compound is made out of two elements held together by chemical bonds, for example, water is also considered a compound because it contains hydrogen and oxygen.
Along with carbon dioxide because it is made out of oxygen and hydrogen. But water, chlorine and hydrogen are not considered compounds because they only have one unique element.
Another thing about compounds is that they are found in the same proportions, so you wouldn't see a water compound with one more hydrogen. Water will always have two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. And it is consistent and never changing.
Since it is consistent water will always be H2O. Now the smaller 2 is written in a "subscript" which signifies that the H in the water molecule is that there are two hydrogen atoms, and carbon dioxide is always going to be CO2, the 2 being that there are two oxygen atoms. 

Another element is H2SO4, which always has 2 Hydrogen (H2), one Sulfur (S), and four Oxygen (O4).
But for some elements, Calcium for example: Ca(OH)2, the calcium is made out of one Calcium atom (Ca), and two of OH or (OH)2. 
These atoms are actually very small as some atoms contain up to a billion atoms, like table salt or Sodium Chloride which has the elements NaCl.  
But unlike other atoms, sodium chloride has as large structure compared to other atoms, sodium chloride has an Ionic bond, and the NaCl or table salt is a 1:1 ratio, so that if there's a Na atom there is always a Cl atom.

Mixtures are substances that are not bonded together. So if we combine sodium chloride, oxygen, individual helium atoms, and carbon dioxide this would be considered a mixture, 

Internal Energy and Heat Capacity

Internal energy usually comes into two forms: Potential Energy stores, and Kinetic Energy stores.
Most potential energy stores come from Gravitational and Elastic energy, this isn't really related to temp but is good to know. Kinetic energy on the other hand is very important as the movement is an energy store.

When you heat up anything, you are converting the heat into kinetic energy stored which we can measure in an increase in temp, which is a measure of the "Internal temperature" of a substance.  

However, substances need more energy to increase their temperature than other elements, as water needs 4200J or 4200 joules of heat in order to warm 1kg of it by 1°c. 
Compared to Mercury which only needs 139J of energy to have 1kg of it to be 1°c  hotter. These numbers are called "Heat Capacity."
The inverse is also true, so when water cools by 1°c, the water is relicensing 4200J of energy while cooling. 

Gravity and Weight

The Earth's core is the reason why Gravity exists, gravity is a force that attracts objects together and relies on mass as well as the distance between the two objects,
that is why when you travel in the ozone layer gravity is weaker. 

Everything has a gravitational force pulling things towards it, like an apple and a skyscraper, there is a gravitational pulling the apple and skyscraper together but it is so slight that it is practically non-existent. 

For large objects, or in this case.
Planets, have a much stronger gravitational pull than an apple, having a file of influence around it. We, humans, have dubbed this a "Gravitational field" and the strength is the "Gravitational field strength" In, in Physics we show the letter "g" as gravity, which if we are talking about Earth is around 9.8 newtons per kilo, but if you take the moon it would be 1.6 newtons per kilo because the moon is smaller and thus has a smaller mass.

So whenever an object comes into a gravitational field it is attracted or pulled towards the gravitational field, so to calculate an object's weight, we take its mass and multiply it by the gravitational field strength (9.8) so if someone weights 60kg, we multiply 60 * 9.8 giving us 588 newtons or 588N. For this, we would say we have a weight of 60kg, not a mass of 60kg.
Mass refers to the basic characteristic of the object's mass, and Weight is how much the force of gravity affects it.

When you jump you are expending energy and putting it in the "Gravitational potential energy store", the formula for gravitational potential energy store is 
Ep = mgh or Mass * Gravitational field strength * height the measurements are mass (kilos), gravitational field strength (newtons per kilo) and H (Height), and Ep is measured in Joules.

Now let's take an apple with a mass of 100 grams and we throw it 3 meters into the air.
First, we have to convert the mass to kilograms to make the equation easier, so we convert the 100g to 0.1kg by dividing the 100g by 1000 (because one kilo is 1000 grams). Then we multiply the 0.1 (weight) * 9.8 (the gravitational field strength) * 3 meters (height), and we get 2.94 joules of energy.

Once again gravity relies on the mass of an object and how far it is from other objects, so planets will attract space debris, but rocks cannot attract other rocks on earth, because of the mass difference between a planet and a rock.

Nepal

Nepal and India have a large dispute on where Buddha (the person), was born because Nepal says Lumbini which is in Nepal but India says that Buddha grew up in Kapilavatsu for the first 29 years of his life which they argue is in Piprahwa which is half a mile or 800+ from the Nepali border, then the Nepali people argue that Kapliavatsu is in modern-day Tilaurakot. Then the Indian's argue that it was during the Mahajanapada area when Nepal wasn't even established as a country.

The most common things people know about Nepal are: Sherpas and Mount Everest the tallest mountain in the world claiming hundreds of lives to those who climb it.

Geographically they are sandwiched between China and India and contained to the Himalayan mountain range, the country is split into 7 provinces but strangely only 3 have names those being: Province 1, Madhesh Pradesh, Bagmati Province, Gandaki, Lumbini, Karnali and Sudurpaschim.
Originally the country was split into 14 zones that are still used for license plates.

The capital Kathmandu located in Province 3 or the Bagmati province, the largest and busiest airport is Kathmandu's Tribhuvan International, but due to tourism, they have made 3 other airports those being: Nji-Gadn, Pokhara and Gautama Buddha Airport.

Oh, and they also have the most dangerous runway in the world which is Lukla airport which drives off a cliffside, so if you don't build enough speed to fly you plummet downwards.

Also, they act sorta like a buffer between the two giants India and China, this comes with its pros and cons, and one of the pros is that they are basically surrounded by two large countries. And since they are basically surrounded by these two countries Nepal is one of the very few countries to never be colonised, they were definitely influenced and invaded, but never fully colonised by external peoples.
Since they were never colonised the land transport is unique, they have roads heading into both China and India, but to go into Kathmandu you have to go to the heart of the mountain so you only have a few highways to get there like the H02 highway from India and the H03 which goes into Zhangmu-Zhen in Tibet China.

There is a disputed territory in Nepal which is the Kalapani territory, it was a byproduct of the 1962 border war between India and China.

Interesting places to visit are The Annapurna National History Museum, Narayanhiti Palace, Pokhara (basically the tourism capital), Chitwan, Tiger tops and Elephant Polo fields, the Toothache Tree, the Aviation Museum, religious sites like Pashupatinath, Manakamanab, Budanikanth, Muktinath, Rincheling Gompa, The Ronbuk Monastery, Lumbini (the arguable birthplace of Buddha, and the Boudanath Stupa. 

Nepal is located at the start of the Himalayan Mountain range, the tallest mountain range in the world it was caused by the Indian tectonic plates colliding with the Eurasian plate and the collisions are still happening meaning that the Himalayas are getting taller by 6.1 or 2.4 inches a year. 

The tallest mountain in Nepal is...Mount Everest is nearly 9000 meters high or 9km tall and has 8 of the tallest mountains in the world just in the mountain range itself. Since the technotic plates are active the country is subjected to Earthquakes the strongest being a 7.8 magnitude earthquake in 2015, along with that it triggered an avalanche on Mount Everest killing 21 people. 

The country has 3 regions, the Himalayan mountain range, the Pahad which is below the mountains which doesn't get snow and has fertile land and rivers, lastly the Terei the lowest part of Nepal located in the greater Gangetic plain that extends to northern Bangladesh and India.
The lowest point is Kechana Kalan 70m above sea level, China this makes Nepal one of the countries with a large amount of elevation changes, the Kechana Kalan area is the most fertile which is where most of the agriculture is grown. 

The largest river is the Ghaghara which is found in the west and the largest lake is the Rara, but still, the Baghmati River runs through Kathmandu and the Gandak River has the largest Hydroelectric dam, while the Koshi River supplies most of the water to the lower parts of Nepal in the east.

Nepal does struggle with their living index of animals they are still a heavily agrarian society with nearly 65% of the population in agriculture, and half of the development funds come from foreign aid from other countries. Their exports largely are textiles, clothing and carpets. 

They are trying to use the tourism sector of visitors to their advantage normally through tours and guides through the mountains with obviously Mount Everest. Being the most expensive.

When you want to go up Mount Everest you have multiple choices for agencies for travelling up. The Western ones will be pretty pricy up to 45,000+ USD per person, the Nepali agencies being cheaper but a language barrier might exist, but the 25,000+ is much cheaper than the Western agencies. You can also just hire a helicopter to fly up but only one person has ever done that being Didier Delsale from France but it is incredibly dangerous.  

Around 40% is forested with 9 national parks and 3 wildlife reserves. 
The national animal is the cow with the Hindu population of Nepal regards them as sacred animals, many are vegetarian or eat chicken or fish. 

Some popular foods here are: Dhindo, Gundruk, Daal Bhat Tarkari, Thakali Khana set, Choila, Kachila, Chatamari, Nepali pani puri, Nepali Aloo Chana, Laphing, and Momo dumplings. 

Nepal has over 120 Ethno-linguistic groups, with a population of around 30 million people with over 2 million working abroad usually in the Middle East. With the Chhettri being around 17%, Brahman-hill at 12%, Magar at 7, and the Tharu at 7% also, the rest 57% is made out of other groups.

They use the Nepali rupee, which is pegged to the Indian rupee, type C, D and M plug outlets and they drive on the left side of the road.

With over 120 people, most speak Nepali which is sorta of a cousin to Hindi which is spoken by roughly 45% of the population. But English is still used in government as a bridge because not everyone speaks Nepali. 

Around 81% of the population is Hindu, even at 10% which is considered a minority Nepal takes Buddhism very seriously.

Most belong to the 7 "Family" groups, the mountainous Bhoti, Sherpa and Thakali at the Himalayan zones, the Gurung people usually serve in the Nepali military under the Gurkhas.
Then the Kirani, Rai and Limbu people in the east, similar to the Bhutanese and Sikkim, with 3/5ths of the population the Pahari people are the most widespread around Nepal, they are very focused on agriculture and having amazing textiles. 
The Tamang are about 40 clans scattered throughout Nepal and are extremely Bhudhist.
Then the Tharu people in the south, are generally immune to malaria due to their Thalassemic blood which is inherited which is a blood disorder.

The "Original" Nepali are probably the Newar people found in pockets around Nepal but mostly in cities. They are considered to be the most advanced in economics, politics and society. 

Many Nepali follow a Tantric tradition that requires 5 animals for a ritual sacrifice: water buffalo, goats, ducks, and chicken, but they must be male.
The Himalayas are considered to be the "Abode of Lord Shiva", and every town has a Jatra which is a celebration of their main god or goddess which a statue of their god/goddess is paraded around the town. Along with a 15-day celebration of Dashain.
As well as the Kumari which are young girls treated like goddesses until they reach puberty. 

The short history is: The Kathmandu neolithic age, Nepal being spoken about in the Vedic Hindu texts, the Kirati kings period, the small kingdoms and clans, Siddharta Gautama, vassal states under the Maurya and Gupta empires, Prithvi Narayan Shah put together modern-day Nepal, the Angolo Nepali war, the Treaty of Saguali, the Kot massacre, slavery abloshed in 1924, royal family drama, the 2001 royal massacre, King Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev steps down as king ending Nepal's title as the last Hindu kingdom in the world.  

Types of Life

 Animals, Fungi, Plants, Protocysts, Bacteria and Viruses are all different but they are all different types of Life.

Animals, Fungi, Protists and Plants are Eukaryotes, meaning they are made of Eukaryotic cells DNA is stored in chromosomes and their DNA is found in a Nucleus inside the cell. While Bacteria are Prokaryotes which means they don't have a nucleus their DNA is loose floating around in the cell, like a stand of string floating in water.
Viruses on the other hand do not count as organisms so they don't meet the criteria of being either a Eukaryotic or Prokaryotic cell, they are also 10 to 100 times smaller than prokaryotic cells.

There are to our estimates 5-10 million different species of animals on earth, from fish to insects to birds to humans, but the one thing similar to all is they are Multicellular and they are Heterotrophs.
Most reproduce sexually, and each animal is made out of multiple cells instead of one.
It is thought that an adult human is made out of 40,000,000,000,000 cells or 40 trillion cells, so in order to get energy humans and animals need plants or other animals to gain energy.

Plants on the other hand with around 300,000 species on earth, ranging from tomato plants, to trees to leaves. Like animals, plants, are multicellular and they are Autotrophs instead of Heterotrophs meaning that they get energy from the sun via photosynthesis instead of consuming other organisms. 

Fungus are different from plants, they are mostly multicellular, most forms are mushrooms or fungi growing on sandwiches, but yeast which is used in bread is unicellular which means they are made of one cell. Although they look like plants, the key difference is that they cannot photosynthesis instead they get their energy from other sources like animals so they are Heterotrophs, but that's not fully correct as fungi are Saprotrophs which means that they feed using digestive enzymes outside their body to and wait for the enzymes to break down the food and then digest it by absorbing it into their bodies.
Although some of the multicellular ones have a body known as the Mycelium which is made from small string-like substances called Hyphae.
Although rare some fungi are considered Pathogens which means disease-bringing to humans for example Athlete's foot is a fungus that grows on your foot.

Protoctists/Protoctista/Protists/Protista. Are all basically the same thing, nearly all of them are unicellular meaning they are made of singular cells, cells like Chlorella and Euglena are similar to plant cells due to them having chloroplast, while other cells like Amoeba are similar to animal cells because they have to consume other organisms to survive. Most protoctists have nothing to do with humans although some are considerd pathogens and are harmful to humans like Plasmodium which causes Malaria. 

Bacteria live practically everywhere from skin, to the ground to even food, although some species can photosynthesize bacteria in general don't have chloroplasts, but most feed of other organisms maybe dead leaves or living organisms like humans. 
Scientists speculate that there are more species of bacteria than all the other species of life on this planet combined. Some are harmful like Salmonella which causes food poisoning, but most don't bother with humans, in fact some are even helpful to humans like the bacteria in our intestines that help digest food that we eat.

Viruses are basically small tiny particles, for a sense of scale you can fit around 1 million of them along the width of a single fingernail, all viruses are different but all have similar features like a Protein coat around it.

  

Elements, Isotopes and Relative Atomic Mass

The amount of protons tells us how heavy and what number it is assigned to in the periodic table, so Hydrogen is the lightest and has a single proton and electron.

Next on the line is Helium because it has 2 protons and 2 electrons. As you look at any periodic table, there are over 100 different elements some that act similar to each other but they are different. Copper and Tin are different elements, but they are both metals. 

The number at the bottom of most elements is the Atomic symbol, which is unique to every element, as it is the number of protons in the element, and elements cannot overlap in atomic numbers. 

If we take another element...Carbon its atomic number is 6, so every carbon atom should have 6 protons, if we take an atom with 3 protons it cannot be carbon but instead, it is Lithium.
Also the alphabetic letter on the element says its name so Li is Lithium, C for Carbon, but not all elements follow this naming scheme, a good example is Fe or Iron and Na which is Sodium.

Well if the number of protons determines the element, what about Neutrons, well neutrons vary between elements and even in the same element we call these kinds of elements Isotopes. The definition of an isotope is that
"They are different forms of each element that have the same number of protons but not neutrons."

If we take carbon, the most common version of carbon is Carbon 12 which has 6 protons, electrons and neutrons, while another form is Carbon 13, which has the normal 6 protons but has 7 neutrons and 6 electrons.

Something to keep in mind is that all isotopes alike elements have different masses, let's take copper for example.
Copper has two stable isotopes, copper 63 taking around 69.2% of all copper elements, and copper 65 has an abundance of 30.8%, when we are talking about the abundance of an isotope it means how common these isotopes are.
In a quiz or exam, you might see a question like: "Calculate the relative atomic mass to 1 decimal place".
For this equation, you will do "(the sum of all isotope abundance * mass) divided by the sum of abundance of all isotopes".
So lets take copper-63 which is 69.2% * 63 (copper 63), but for copper-65 it would be 30.8% * 65. Then we add both equasions (copper-63 + copper-65) then we add the isotope abundance of 69.2 + 30.8.

So the 69.2 * 63 is equal to 4359.6 and the 30.8 * 65 is equal to 2002, then you add them together to get 6361.69,  then we divide them by the 69.2 + 30.8 which is equal to 100. so we divide 63.6169 / 100. And we get 63.6169.
But the question wants it to be "Calculate the relative atomic mass to 1 decimal place", we will instead put 63.6 instead.