Nicaragua

The country is named after the Nicaraguan tribe and Aqua, which is the Spanish term for water.

Located in Central America, it is a bi-coastal nation with coasts on both the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, located under Honduras, and above Costa Rica/

The border between Nicaragua and Costa Rica is just enough so that Costa Rica doesn't get access to lake Nicaragua, which is named after the countries named after, the narrowest corridor is only 2 miles wide or 3.2km, then on the border of Costa Rica they take the whole Portello lake even though it is fully enclaved in Costa Rica.

The whole country is split into 15 departments with 2 autonomous regions, their capital Managua, directly below lake Managua or Xolotan, which is where the largest airport is.

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Specialised Exchange Surfaces

These types of exchange surfaces are parts of an organism that exchange substances with the exterior envorment. 

Our exchange cells in our bodies are the Villi, and the Alveoli.
Its job is to exchange Oxygen and Carbon dioxide in our blood, but the Villi, which are our intestines, help with absorbing glucose and amino acids.

The roots in the bottom of the plant have their root hair cells, which help absorb the water in the surrounding soil, along with the leaves, to help them absorb CO2  in the air.

Something to help with these exchange surfaces is a large surface area, so by having hundreds of millions of Alveoli in our lungs, it makes it a larger surface area, having a large surface area increases the amount of diffusion and can also help with the diffusion rates. 

Another thing about diffusion surfaces is that they are often very thin because it makes the substances diffuse over a short distance, for root hair cells, the water only has to diffuse through a thin cell wall and membrane,
this is known as a 'short diffusion distance', which increased the speed with which the plant can absorb. 

Other types of diffusion surfaces are blood, as the blood has to flow and diffuse throughout the body, so having glucose dissolve into the blood that gets taken away to the intestines to then be replaced by more blood.

Another good thing to keep in mind is a 'good supply of external mediums', a good example of this is keeping a good supply of Oxygen for your lungs, when you breathe the Oxygen mixed with the Alveoli, which helps keep a steady concentration gradient for your bloodstream.

Series Circuits

Learning the difference between Series and Parallel circuits is important. 

In series circuits, the components are added in 'series' or in one line, as if they were all on one wire. The thing about this type of circuit is that if the wires break, the whole circuit stops working.
This also means that the potential difference is shared throughout the circuit.

You might get an equation like this :
Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3.

If we were to put a 12-volt cell or battery, and have two filament lamps on the circuit, both lamps have to add up to 12 volts

On the other hand, current is the same everywhere in the circuit. To measure it, we use ammeters, which are placed in series, and since they measure current, we can place them anywhere in the circuit.

Resistance is how much the component resists electricity, and the total resistance is how much all components resist, so to calculate the resistance in ohms, we need to know how much power our components resist. 

So, let's take a 6 ohm circuit and connect two filament lamps. One lamp requires 4 ohms, and the other requires 2 ohms.

To calculate this, we can use the equation "V=IR", which is named Ohm's law, the 'V' in the equation means voltage, so first we multiply the 6 ohms by 2 to get 12v or 12 volts, then we divide the 12 volts by 6 because that's how many ohms are flowing into the circuit, to get 2A or tao Ammeters 2, this whole thing calulsates the whole circuit, but that hapfpenss if you need to calculate a single compident. 

To get the resistance of a single component, get tww

Find a component, let's use a 2 ohms filament lamp, now to use Ohm's equation again, now we have to rearrange the equation to fit the problem by changing it to be 'I=V/R', so we calculate the voltage by getting the amount of power coming 

 

Group 7 & Group 0 (Halogens & Noble Gases)

 Halogens are very dangerous, these are the Halogens:

Florine is a poisonous yellow gas and is very reactive.

Chlorine is less reactive than fluorine but is a poisonous green gas.

Bromine is a dark brown liquid, once again the odour and liquid are poisonous, and the vapour that it creates is heavy, so you can pour out its vapour from a glass ampule

Iodine is a dark purple solid that forms poisonous purple vapours, but it is also a commonly used antiseptic in medical applications. 

Tennessine.

Atatine.

But we will mainly talk about the elements starting from Florine to Iodine, but the elements Tennnessine and Atatine are still important to remember.

All halogens exist as pairs of atoms, referred to as diatomic molecules. This term indicates that these molecules consist of two atoms. They form these pairs by sharing electrons through covalent bonds. Additionally, halogens can bond with other non-metals, such as carbon or hydrogen, using the same covalent bonding mechanism.
Chlorine bonding with Carbon can get you Carbon Tetrachloride.

Unlike the Alkali metals, the Halogens increase their boiling and melting points the further down you go on the chart.
Along with the boiling points increasing, the reactivity decreases, making the elements less reactive.

The reason why they become less reactive is because the electrons get further from the positive nucleus.

When Halogen ionic bonds with metals and collects an electron to become a minus -1 electron, we call those Halides, so we change the 'ne' at the ends of the names of the Halogens so when Bromine bonds with a metal it becomes Bromide, Iodine becomes Iodide, Chlorine becomes Chloride, and Fluorine becomes Fluoride.

Most of the time they bond with the Alkali metals, an example is Sodium Chloride, the Sodium is an alkali metal while the Chloride is a Halogen.

Another thing that Halogens do is that they do something called 'Displacement Reactions', which means that the more reactive Halogen displace the less reactive ones.

So if we pumped some Chlorine gas into a solution of Potsassium Bromide, so the chemical numbers would be Cl(g) + 2kBr(aq), so since the Chlorine is more reactive than the Bromine it will displace the Bromine causing the element to become 2kCl(aq).

Something to keep in mind is that more reactive Halogens will always displace less reactive ones.

 

Surface Area to Volume Ratio

If we take a look at smaller organisms, something to take notice of is that they can use diffusion to exchange substances with their environments.
If we look at humans, we need specialised systems for transport via the heart and blood vessels, like our intestines and lungs for breathing and expelling waste.

The single-celled organisms have to constantly be doing chemical reactions to survive, like gathering amino acids, glucose and Oxygen, and getting waste like carbon dioxide out.

Everything has a Surface area to Volume ratio, for example, a cell has a higher surface area to volume ratio than a cow, as when organisms increase in size, the surface area to volume ratio decreases.

Now calculating this kind of thing is a bit confusing for organisms, instead we will use a small 1cm by 1cm by 1cm cube.

To calculate the surface area, you must first get the length and the width of one face, and multiply them together, so 1cm*1cm is 1cm^2 or 1cm squared, then you multiply it by 6 because a cube is six-sided, to get 6cm^2.
To get the volume of the cube, you need to multiply three values, which in this case is 1cm*1cm*1cm, to get 1cm^3, or 1cm cubed.
So at the end it has a ratio of 6:1, because it is six times bigger than the volume of the cube.

Now if we take another cube and instead of it being 1cm*1cm*1cm, it is 2cm, first we take one face of the cube and multiply it by its height and width (2cm*2cm), then which gives us 2cm^2, then we multiply it by six because six-sided cube then we get 24.

Then the volume is 8, by multiplying all the values 2cm*2cm*2cm, giving us 8cm^3 or 8cm cubed, so putting it into an equation would give a ratio of 24:8, which we can simplify by dividing both equations by 8, which gives us a ratio of 3:1.

The Indus River Valley civilizations

The early civilization came from the river valleys, known as the Harappans, this civilization was in the area of modern-day Pakistan in the Indus Valley, dating as far back as 7,000 BCE.

Around 3,300 to 2,000 BCE, the early Indus Civilization appeared, and that's when the Acadians and the Sumerians began interacting, and then around the 3rd millennium was when the empire of Sargon the Great was established.

Then around the mature period, which is around 2600 BCE, is where most of the advanced structures were found, and if we go to Egypt, around 2500 BCE is roughly when the Pyramids were built.

Then around 1600 BCE is considered the late Indus valley civilization, which is where the Babylonian empire was founded

The Punjab region in Pakistan is where most of our archaeological dig sites are about the Indus Valley Civilization, found around Harappa, which is why it is known as the Harappan civilization too, the largest site is Mohenjo-Daro in the Sindh region.
We believe that over 40,000 people was living in that region alone, with around Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, there are over 1000 sites scattered all around both regions.

The reason why we think that this is a civilization is because of the sheer size of it all, the standardization of measurement and weight, we have found them using aa measurement of 1.6mm which is precise, we can speculate that there was some cultural interchange, sin they were using bricks that were a standard size so measurements were needed.

In Mohenjo-Daro, we found some sites that these people lived in, from citadels, to public baths, and what was impressive is that we found sewerage systems for carrying waste, along with houses with wells.
Their jewelry is intricate and complicated with shells gathered from the Arabian Peninsula, and the type of jewelry was not only found at these sites but also found in Mesopotamia too, and we speculate that there were probably ships transporting cargo from Mesopotamia and the now modern-day Mohenjo-Daro region. 
Materials from what is now modern-day China and India, they also had their own writing system and they also made Symbols along with a wee known symbol of a Nazi Swastikas', before Hitler used in in his campaigns it is a common symbol in Hinduism, often meaning good luck,.
But we don't really know much about them, other than the stuff we found at dig sites, and since we can't decipher their writing.

One of the strangest things about the Indus Valley Civilization is 'why did it end', they seemed to be thriving with good ties and imports from other civilizations, some ideas on why it ended were maybe they were invaded, some other theories are that it was because of climate change .

As one of the earliest civilizations on earth with a speculation of their whole population maybe reaching  

Components

Components are used in circuits for electricity to flow, and we write these components via symbols.

Firstly, we write multiple vertical lines to depict a Cell or Battery, which powers the circuit.

Wires are written as lines and normally straight, and they carry the current throughout the circuit.

A Fuse is a rectangle with a wire running through it. Its purpose is to prevent the device from being overloaded. When too much power flows through the circuit, the fuse breaks, cutting power.

For switches, it will look like two circles connected via a short line between them, when the line is connected it means the current can flow, but when the switch's line isn't it means the current can't flow.

Then a Diode is a component that only allows current to flow a certain way, a form of diode is a Light Admitting Diode or LED, which lights up when electricity flows through it.

Now, for measuring current, we have Ammeters, which are put in series or connected through the circuit, and Volumeters, which are used for measuring potential difference and are  added in parallel, usually outside the circuit.

Lastly, we have resistors, which 'resist' the current to a specified amount, certain components can only function at certain amounts of electricity, if we put too much power into a component it might fry the circuits and the components might smoke or catch on fire, for example, when you charge your phone, it has resistors in the plug to not take too much power so that the internals don't fry.
Along with normal basic resistors, there are also variable resistors that can be modified so that they resist more or less current based on the situation.

Light-dependent resistors use light as a way of varying the amount of resistance, if you put them in a bright environment will resist a lot less than in a dark one as the darker it gets the more they will resist an application many people use these LDR's is in automatic nightlights which turn on when the lights in the room are off.

Thermistors use heat to vary the resistance so the more heat the less resistant the resistor becomes, and the colder it gets the more resistant it becomes.

Charge, Current & Time

A charge is a measurement of current that flows through a window of time, such as the amount of charge that flows through a wire in a minute or hour. 

We write charge with the letter Q, and the name of this measurement for change is Coulombs, so an equation of this would be:
Q=A*T, or Q (charge), is equal to A which is amps, multiplied by T, which is time usually written in seconds unless specified. 

So in an equation, it would look something like this:

    "A kettle draws 12 amps and takes 50 seconds to boil, how much charge has passed          through the wire."

Since we have amps as the voltage and we were given an amount of time, the math is easy, first, we multiply the 12 * 50, which provides us with 600 coulombs or charge.

What about another equation:

    "A phone charger takes a total charge of 43.2Kc (43.2 kilo-coulombs) over 2 hours,             what amount of current has flowed through the wire"

First, we change the equation to match the problem, so we will use:
I=Q/T.

Now, we multiply 43.2kC by 1000. Since a kilo is 1000, we convert it to 43,000c or 43,000 coulombs.
However, since we use seconds instead of hours in our equation, we have to multiply 2 hours by 60 to get 120 minutes, then another 60 to get seconds. 
Which is around 7,200 seconds, now we just plug in the 43,000 / 7,200, which gives us around 6a or 6 amps. 

The Standard of Ur

The Standard of Ur is 4500 years old and comes from the city-state of Ur now in present-day Iraq.

Normally standards are banners and flags that were used in war, but the standard of Ur is different since it was intentionally buried and found in tombs, or Royal Tombs dubbed by Leonard Woodlly excavated in the early 20s and early 30s.

But Woolly discovered one piece, which we dubbed the Standard of Ur. It might have been used as a storage device, a musical instrument, or currency.

It is a long rectangular. On one wall, an artwork depicts peace and prosperity, farmers growing crops, and cattle being moved. The rectangle is split into three registers or horizontal segments. 

The colours on the standard of Ur are interesting because many of the materials used in the standard we brought in from neighbouring civilizations.
For example, the blue on the standard was brought in from Afghanistan, the red stone from modern-day India, and the shell came from the Gulf south of now current-day Iraq.

Once again the reason why importing materials and working with other civilizations worked is because of Agriculture, as with agriculture everyone in their group did not have to worry about gathering food and was able to obtain a surplus of food, and were able to branch out to the extent of meeting other people.

Now back to the standard, on it is the 3 horizontal segments, the bottom row is mainly working-class people, depicted transporting goods to a destination.

The middle row is people with animals, some sheep and bulls, these animals might get sacrificed in the form of an income tax or service.

Lastly is the top row, with what looks to be a king on a throne with people sitting down and watching him, with an entertainer playing an instrument, and somewhat looks to be people taking an audience with the king holding cups or chalices.

Now the backside of the standard is a totally different story, it is still three horizontal rows, but now instead the back of the standard depicts a war or things that were brought into war, such as chariots and people with spears.

The bottom row is what looks to be one chariot drawn in impact frames as starts from a walk to a gallop to a sprint, pulled by male donkeys, one man maybe an enemy or ally has clearly fallen over, with blood spilling out where a horse had possibly stepped on him.

The middle row looks to be a structured army, on one half of the drawing, showing them in a line possibly marching to war, the middle standard depicts the army defeating their enemies, while the the right side depicts captured prisoners of war or POWs.

At the top row is what looks to be a large figure possibly the king is in the centre the left side has a group of soldiers and a chariot while the right side is POWs being handed to the king, they seem to not be wearing much clothing and being very bloody when being handed over.

Active Transport

Active transport works in root hair cells in plants, for example, we can use diffusion to compare it.

When we talk about diffusion it is particles going from a region of high concentration to low concentration, this takes no energy from the cell, as it is a passive process.

Active Transport is the movement of molecules that go against to concentration gradient, and that does require energy from the cell, which is ann active process. 
It also always happens across a cell membrane, in which special proteins transfer molecules across the cell membrane.

In a plant, all the energy comes from solar respiration, which happens in the mitochondria which break down glucose to create energy for the plant, and the mitochondria store the energy in things called ATP, which are basically batteries, transporting the energy from the mitochondria and moving it around the plant.

Let's take a plant as an example of active transport, this plant needs energy to function and mineral ions to survive, which it gets from the soil, which they use roots to gather these, there are cells on the roots which are named root hair cells which help absorb all the minerals the plant needs from the surrounding soil. 

The plant needs certain minerals the plant needs mainly nitrates to produce proteins and magnesium for chlorophyll since they need to gather the minerals the plant has to absorb the minerals via active transport going against their concentration gradient, the reason why the plant can't absorb the minerals via diffusion is that there is a higher concentration of magnesium and nitrates in the root cells than the soil, so active transportation is necessary, in the root hair cells are a lot of mitochondria, which help with energy in the cell.

Alkali Metals - Group 1

 Alkali metals are a different type of metal, these metals are as follows, from top to bottom.

Lithium.

Sodium.

Potassium.

Rubidium.

Caesium.

Francium.

These elements unlike most other metals, have low melting points, are brittle and have very low densities, Caesium, for example, explodes at room temperature and is reactive to Oxygen, and they get more reactive the further you go down the chart, and for another example, lithium which is used in lithium-ion batteries are explosive when in contact with water. 

Along with being more reactive the boiling points and the melting points decrease meaning the further you go down the easier it is to melt or boil the water, the reason why these elements or atoms are so unstable is that they only have one electron in their outer shell,
and since they only have one electron in their outermost shell, another reason why they are extremely reactive is because the single electron is on the outer-most shell which is very far from the central nucleus of their atom.

They often combine with non-metals to form ionic compounds, these happen by the Alkali atom donates its singular electron to another element.
Which in this case will be a Chlorine atom, when the Sodium atom loses its electron it becomes an ion, and since the Chlorine atom gains an electron it becomes negatively charged while the Sodium atom becomes positively charged thus making them both attracted to each other. 

When an Alkali metal comes in contact with water, it forms Metal-Hydroxide and Hydrogen gas, which in chemical terms would be written as:
2Na + 2H20 = 2NaOH + H2.

But from Potassium onwards, the elements get so reactive that they will ignite the hydrogen gas, and we know hydrogen gas is very explosive. 

Na+ Cl = NaCl, or Sodium + Chlorine = Sodium-Chloride, this ionic compound is a common table salt which is used in foods.

When these Alkali metals come in contact with Oxygen, they become metal oxides, for example, if we take Lithium and mix it with oxygen we get Lithium Oxide or Li20, or if we take Sodium and combine it with Oxygen we get Sodium Oxide or Na20, 
Or Potatsium and Oxygen we get Potasssium Peroxide or K2O2, or KO2, which is Potassium superoxide.

V = IR Equation & I-V Graphs

Let's take some amps and some ohms, and take 4a (4 amps), and 2Ω(ohms).

We would multiply the 4a * 2Ω, and it would be 8v or 8 volts, so if we take a 24v battery and it is producing the current of 8a, then it would be 24v/8a which would be 3Ω or 3 ohms.

Let's make a graph, shaped like a plus sign, and let's put the top number I for the current, and V for the differential difference. 
And it's a very straight line, a straight 45° incline. Now along as we are using wires and resistors that line will be very straight, but now if we add more resistors, the incline changes to around 25°, or if we use less it would be a more 75° incline. 

Now what about Filament lamps and Diodes, filament lamps work by heating up via electricity allowing them to emit light, now if we put in a lot of electricity to let the lamp glow, it starts to be weaker the more power we put in it since when the lamp heats up it increases resistance.

Now Diodes only work when the current is positive, how it works is they have they have a really strong resistance to negative currents.

Osmosis

Diffusion is when particles go from a place of high concentration to a low concentration, Osmosis is similar to diffusion but mainly for water.

Water concentration is the amount of other molecules most commonly sugars and salts, and how much is dissolved in the water. 
These molecules that dissolve in the water are named solutes, so if we take two beakers and fill both with water and then put one solute in the left beaker, and put 3 in the right beaker we would have a higher amount of solute concentration.

What matters is the amount of solute that is in the beaker, because that's what dictates the water concentration.

 

Metal and Non-Metals

Most of the elements on the periodic table are metals, these metal elements form positive ions when reacting, while most non-metals don't form anything.

To our knowledge, all atoms want a full outer shell to be stable. If an element is found on the left, the number of electrons on its outmost shell is less than on the right side of the shell.   

Metals become more reactive the lower you go on the periodic table because the further you go down, the more shells an element has. For example, Lead or Pb has six shells.
And since the positively charged nucleus is what keeps the electrons in their place, and the lead atom's electrons are far away from the nucleus, the lead atom can lose the electrons easily, this feature is what makes the bottom-most atoms more reactive than the ones at the top. 

Metals are metallic bonding, which is special as their bonds are special to their element, and are very strong compared to other types of bonds, things that metals can do are as follows:

Copper has high melting points, is malleable can be bent or hammered into shape, and is a great conductor of heat and electricity. That's why we use copper in wires so often.
Another thing that metals can do is be sonorous which is the ability to make loud sounds when struck, this is why we use them in gongs, and commonly shiny metals are often used in jewellery.

Compared to non-metals which are very dull in colour and are often terrible at conducting electricity like wood, have low melting points and are brittle, they have lower densities compared to metals making them lighter in weight.

Transition metals are found at the centre of the periodic table, they share the same qualities as metal but they have some other properties, one of the things that are different about these transition metals is that they can form more than ions.

Let's take a transition metal, Chromium, which can form 2+, 3+, and 6+ ions, these transition metals are often coloured, so if we take their liquid forms +2 would be blue, +3 would be green, and then +6 would be orange. 
Chromium is a catalyst, which increases the rate of a chemical reaction, without being in the reaction themselves. 

For example, iron is used in our bodies to harber processes, while nickel is used in the hydrogenation of Alkenes, which the alkenes are used in margarine.

Ciruits

 Most circuits are made out of components, and circuits are made in closed loops. 

The most common way a circuit is powered is by a cell, connected via a wire, one of the most common components in circuits are filament lamps, which are connected via the wire, and glow when connected to the cell or battery.

We can also connect a switch to the wire so that we can stop the flow of electricity from reaching the bulb. 

Sometimes you would write I electricity, when measuring electricity flowing through a wire they are named amps, or amperes are written with the letter A.

Potential Difference is the force driving the electricity around the wire, supplied by the battery or cell. It is like the pump that pumps the electricity through the wires.

Then, there is voltage, which is measured in Volts or V and is electricity supplied by the cell or battery.

Lastly, there is resistance which resists the flow of elections it slows down the speed of electrons we name it ohms using the Greek letter omega Ω

So when we are writing out a circuit, we first need a cell or battery, most commonly written by 2 lines, parallel to each other, one line taller than the other, the taller line is positive and the shorter one is negative, and electricity will flow from the positive side to the negative side.

New Zealand

New Zealand is often forgotten on maps, even their own government 404 page shows a world map with New Zealand missing.

Located 1200 miles or 2000km away from Australia and 600 miles or 1000km away from New Caledonia, Tonga and Fiji, New Caledonia is French, meaning that France is their nearest neighbour.

The country is made up of two main islands, the main island is the North Island or Te-Ika A-Maui, which holds around 3/4ths of the population and has a land mass of about 42% of both islands, and the bigger but less populated island is the South Island or Te Waipou-Namu with around 56% of the landmass.  
The last 2% of New Zealand is made out of 33 smaller islands off the coasts, the largest of them being Stewart Island, south ofthe  South Island,
then the northern Kermadec Islands, and then on the east side the Chatham Islands.

New Zealand is a unitary state divided into 16 councils, with 11 regional councils and 5 unitary councils, while theChathamm Islands act independently as a separate territory authority. 

The second largest city Wellington, holds the title of the most southern city in the world, but Auckland, which is in the north, is the capital city, with around 1/3rd of the population, and it has the largest and busiest airport, Auckland International. 
The 3d largest city is Christchurch, which is on the South Island, and it has the second busiest airport, Christchurch International. 

New Zealand has more land than just these, as they also have 3 New Zealand Island territories, and free-associated Island nations, with them being Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue.

Tokelau considers itself as a Non-self Governing Independent territory, and they have a territory dispute against American Samoa on Swains Island.

Both Niue and the Cook Islands are self-governing states in free association with New Zealand.
Along with the fact that Tokalau has 2500+ people on less than 5 square miles of land over 3 islands, they did become the first fully solar-powered country in the world, but not a 'sovereign' nation-state, but they kinda count.

Then there is the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealand's claim for Antarctica since they are the closest, but they cannot claim part of Antarctica because of the Antarctic Treat, which states that no nation can claim land on Antarctica.

But the strange part comes when we want to place New Zealand in a continent, most say it is part of the region of Oceania, which is Australia and everything else in Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia.
We tried to group New Zealand and Australia in one region named Australasia but it doesn't share a continent with Australia. 
So we made a sub-continent called Zealandia, the name comes from a man named Bruce Lyuendyk, who said it is more a Micro continent or a Continental fragment.

Places to visit include:
The world's steepest street at an incline of 38°, the Auckland Museum, the Auckland Sky Tower you can jump over via bungee jumping, the Maori village in Rotorua, the International Antarctic Center, Hobbiton (the film location of The Hobbit), Marlborough wine fields, the 90-mile beach (actually it is 56 miles or 90km), Waitomo caves with glow worms, frying pan lake the largest boiling lake in the world, the Maraki sphereical boulders. 

The scenery here makes this a very good place for filming movies, movies like: Mission Impossible Fallout, Lord of the Rings, and Narnia.

New Zealand is in the Ring of Fire on the convergence of the Pacific and Australian plates, in the south, the tallest pea,  Mount Cook or Aoraki, at 12,000 feet or 3,700 meters. 
The Kaweka mountain range can be found in the north, since it is in the ring of fire, it is affected by earthquakes and volcanic activity, with 83 known volcanoes on the island, with the largest one, Ruapehu, on the North Island. 

On South Island, there is a bank peninsula, and the nearly perfect circle on Mount Taranaki, along with Mount Taranaki Lake Taupo in the Taupo Calder, which is one of the largest supervolcanoes on earth, then following the lake is the longest river in the country, the Waikato.

Since the country is shaped weirdly, no place in the country is more than 80 miles or 128km from the ocean, in the southern parts of the country, which hold the majority of the population, live, and iare wheremost of the crops and livestock of the country are. 

But one of the most interesting parts of New Zealand is the Fiordlands near the Tasman Sea, and Milford Sound is the most popular due to it being able to be accessed via roads.

Due to their location, New Zealand's land is very diverse, along with being volcanic, so they have geothermal geysers, and being near the south means they have glaciers, alpine forests, and even a small desert in the middle of the North Island.

There is a special type of beach containing magnetite named Magnetic Sand Beaches, in which the sand is magnetic. 

Other than 2 species of bats, there were no other mammals or warm-blooded creatures before humans stepped foot on the island. 

With over 200 species of birds, over half of them are naturally found in New Zealand, strangely, most of the birds here are flightless, like the kiwi and the Kapako, which is Earth's only nocturnal parrot. And since they live near the South Pole, they have more species of penguins than anywhere else on earth. 

A long time ago, the bird known as the Moa, which inhabited New Zealand, was 12 feet tall and was hunted to extinction by the Maori. 

Their national animal, the flightless Kiwi bird, comes in 5 forms on both islands, having the very well-known kiwi shape and also their long beaks, which have nostrils, making them one of the few bird species that can smell.

They also have the Kea which is the world's only alpine parrot, they often like interacting with humans and like to chew on soft objects like rubber, along with bird they also have reptiles, one of which is the Tuatara, which has a 3rd perennial eye on the top of its head, and from the insects is the Giant Weta, which is the heaviest insect on earth.

Jade or Greenstone, which is mined and sold here, is often depicted in paintings and Maori tools and jewellery. The majority of the income comes from the tourism sector, normally on New Zealand's South Islan, which has many activities to d  su,ch as skydiving, paragliding and zzorbinging which is people in large balls.

Since they live very near the sea, they have lots of seafood, species like Hoki, Hake, Paua, Hapaku, Gurnard, and Crayfish are some of the seafood eaten here.

Other than the seafood, they have other stuff like roast lamb, savoury meat pies, hokey pokey icecream, Kiwi burger made with egg and beetroot, manuka honey kumara a Polynesian sweet potato, pavlova, and Hangi which is co d underground oven cooked meal in Rotorua they use the geothermal heat to cook it.

They are the people of New Zealand, known as...Kiwis, with 5.2 million living in New Zealand, are in the top 3 of the ease of business index countries with the least corruption, with around 74% of the population being of European descent with British, Scottish and Irish ancestry.
Around 15% are native Maori people, 7% are Pacific islanders, and the rest are mainly from other countries like Japan, China, Korea and others.

Their currency is the New Zealand Dollar, they use the type I plug outlet, and they drive on the left side of the road.

Their national language is English, and they have a "Kiwi dialect", which sounds very similar to Australian but isn't.
There are two other languages, such as Maori and the NZ sign language, which is the New Zealand Sign language. 

The Maori come from 100+ tribes or Iwi, which are scattered around the country, on both sides of New Zealand, the largest tribe being the Nga Puhi in the north with over 100,000+ people belonging to this tribe, most schools teach Maori in elementary and there are Maori immersion schools to teach students about Maori culture,
they also have couple radio station and television channels that speak only in Maori, most of the Maori speakers are from the Northland is Gisborne regions, along with the Maori is the Haka war dance, which is known to look very aggressive with lots of loud chanting and being intimidating. This dance is usually performed at ceremonies like weddings, birthday parties, and sporting events. 

They have their own types of tattoos known as Kiri-turi, which are the arm and body tattoos, and then Ta-Moko, which are the face tattoos, since the old Maori did not have a type of script, they relied on types of tattoos and wood carvings to tell stories.
For men, the back tattoos often depict their family, where the left side of the body is meant for the father's side, while the right is for the mother's, usually these tattoos tell stories of their accomplishments and achievements, from feats of athleticism or expertise. 

Kiwi's (the people) are very athletic, known for their Rugby, and are 3-time world champion winners, and if they don't win, they often place top 3.

For the brief history of New Zealand:
Before the 1200s the country was a bird island, then around 1280-1300 the Maori come in to the island, then the Maori Pa settlements on the island, maybe around the 1500s is when the largest big the Moa was hunted to extinction, tribal battles to acquire more land, then the Abel tasmen journey a.k.a the first European contact, then the British come in around 1700, then more tribal wars but with guns this time, missionaries, then they become a British colony, then the New Zealand wars, then the Treaty of Waitangi, self-governable under the British, they were the first country to allow women to vote, immigration, then in WW1 they played a role in Samoa, then after during WW2 helped Papa New Guina with the Japanese, the Statue of Westmister Adoption (their independence day), Maldoon getting drunk and losing an election, 1980s Rogernomics, the they do very well economically in the 2000s, Christchurch earthquake in 2011.

Now some famous people from New Zealand or of New Zealand descent are:
Hone Hika (Maori Leader),
Hone Heke (another Maori leader),
(Princess) Te Puea Herangi, Maui Pomare, Patato Te Wherowhero,
Ernest Rutherford ("Father of Nuclear Physics),
Kate Sheppard,
Sir Apirana Ngata,
Sir Edmund Hillery (One of the first people to reach the summit of Mount Everest),
Sir Peter Jackson,
Jaccinda Ardern (the youngest head of  government in the world),
Russle Crowe (actor),
Jonah Lomu (rugby player),
Collin Meads (another rugby player),
Dame Whina Cooper (Maoro activist),
Flight of the Concords (a comedy musical group),
Bruse McLaren (racer),
Kathrine Mansfield (writer),
Lorde (Ella Marija Lani Yelich-O'Connor, song writer/singer),
and YouTube channel and meme page Dolan dark.

Since they get along with everyone, and are a part of APEC and the Colomo plan and others, they have close ties to Chile, South Africa, Argentina, Uruguay, since they are under the CCAMLR or The Conservation of Antarctic Marine living Resources.
They monitor Antarctica and the south seas, their relations to China are a bit weird as the Chinese have been living in New Zealand since the 19th century, then in 2008, they set up a free trade agreement.
But the thing is that the Chinese have bought out many houses in New Zealand to the point that there are practically no homes for their own kiwis. 

Since they are a former British colony, they have close ties with the British, the USA, Canada, and Australia, which are very close to them, they helped the USA for practically every global event since the 20th century, and are extremely close to Canada And Australia because they were both commonwealth nations.

But Australia being their greatest ally, since they have very good trade between the two nations and are close via their culture and history, they also allow both citizens from both countries to be able to migrate and have automatic residency.

Diffusion

When Molecules are left alone, they will want to want to move randomly, the proper term is that the particles will move from a place with high concentration to a place with a lower concentration. 

This can happen in gasses and liquids, for example when you spray perfume it diffuses throughout the air so it is very fragrant, 
or smoke comes out of the car the gasses from the car's exhaust disperse into the air, and if you add food colouring to water.

Diffusion can also occur through materials like cell membranes, usually only really small things can fit through cell membranes, things like water, glucose and amino acids can pass through cell membranes. 

There are three types of diffusion:

Firstly is the Concentration gradient, the larger the concentration gradient the higher the rate of diffusion if we were hypothetically to have two boxes, one on top and one on the bottom, and we put more particles inside the top box and put very little in the bottom one. 

The top one would have a harder time passing through the cell membrane compared to the bottom one since they have a different amount of particles one having much more than others. 

The second is Temperature, the reason is that particles will move faster due to the heat and that the heat gives the particles more energy, a higher temperature helps with the rate of diffusion. 

Lastly is a Surface area, which the higher surface area the higher rate of diffusion, 

The Modern Periodic Table

As you know everything on Earth is made out of specific combinations of atoms on the periodic table, you read it from left to right and top to bottom, the order of these atoms is not random, as the elements are arranged in increasing atomic number or the number of protons the element has. 

The periodic table was made in the 19th century by Dimitri Mendeleev

The periodic table has symbols each explaining what the element is, the two-letter symbol is the Nuclear or Elemental symbol like Na for sodium or Ca for calcium. And on the bottom left is the Atomic number which is how many protons the element has, and finally is the mass number which is the total amount of protons and electrons an element has. 

When Dimitri was plotting the table, he found a pattern, so instead of arranging the elements in a straight line.

He instead made verticle columns which he named periods every time the pattern repeated, each element in each period has similar properties and is called a group,  going from 1 at the leftmost, to 7, but the last group is dubbed group 0, named the noble gasses these are the most stable elements on the table. 
For example, Helium which has one shell, has two electrons and since they don't need to gain or lose electrons to be stable, so that makes them very stable.

Also, another thing to remember is that the block of metals between groups 2 and 3 doesn't have.

The reason why elements are grouped this way is because they have the same amount of elections in their outermost shell, and depending on the group and how many elections it has affects how the element reacts with other elements.

Using the group numbers you can figure out how many electrons they have in their outer shell, while every element has a different amount of electrons.
All group 1s have one electron in the outer shell, and group 2 has two in their outer shells.

Let's start with the Alkali metals, which are in group 1 since they have the same amount of electrons in their nutshells.
They share similar properties, for example, they all react violently with water.

Group 7, named Halogens, have seven electrons in their outer shells, and they get less reactive the lower you go.

 

Hydroelectricity & Tidal Barrages

Hydroelectricity uses large dams that prevent 'free-flowing' water by slowing the water down. 
Hydroelectric dams stop water from flowing from upstream to downstream, and after a while, these dams make reservoirs with lots of water closely resembling a pond.

How Tidal Barrages work on tides via the moon's gravity, twice a day we get high tide and using that high tide we trap the incoming water from flowing downstream. 
And when it starts to become low tide we release the water enabling us to gather electricity, these tidal barrages are built in estuaries which is where the rivers meet the sea. 

The way these work is they generate electricity using gravitational potential energy to generate electricity.
Inside the tidal barrages and hydroelectric dams are turbines under the water that turn when the water flows, they are then connected to a generator that produces electricity.

The pros of running these hydroelectric generators are that the running costs are low, these can be done on small to big rivers, hardly any pollution and are super reliable as an energy source.

But there are some cons, hydroelectric dams tend to flood areas since they have to release tons of water to generate electricity completely flooding natural habitats for animals and plants, and even flooding villages due to the large amount of water.
Along with the setup being expensive, due to the scale of the tidal barrages and hydroelectric dams.

Biofuels

Biofuels are made from recently living organisms, while fossil fuels are made of long-dead organisms from millions of years ago. 

Biofuels usually come from plants or algae, since they can photosynthesise and store energy inside themselves, biofuels are also cheap to make and are renewable,
we classify biofuels as carbon neutral, and we can combine fossil fuels with biofuels.

One of the biggest issues is that we need lots of lands to grow these biofuels, which means we normally need to convert natural land by digging and clearing forests, transporting the fuels and harvesting and processeing the biofuels thus making more C02.