Nutrients

 Nutrients are very important as without proper nutrients, we would not function properly.

The common nutrients are:
Carbohydrates, Lipids and Proteins.
Vitamins and Mineral ions.
Fibres and Water.

Nutrients are gathered from the foods that we eat, let's start off with the most common ones carbohydrates, lipids and proteins, these come from our pasta, potatoes and breads, these carbohydrates are often very starchy, these carbohydrates give us energy which is used for us to move around and conduct chemical reactions in our bodies.

Next are lipids, which are the other names for 'fats', found in fatty food and oils, these fats are commonly found in seeds, dairy products, and types of oily fish.
They also provide energy to our bodies, but compared to carbohydrates this energy source is more long-term since fat can be stored for longer compared to carbohydrates, they also keep us warm since under our skin is a layer of fat, and they keep our organs safe.

Plugs and wires

One important thing about electricity is the plugs and wires, and when you need to repair them, you might notice that the different coloured wires are inside a plug.

The power that comes from the national grid is the main power supply, the current of the mains is an alternating current with around 240 volts flowing into households, keep in mind that the voltage may differ between, which goes into our sockets in our homes.

Three wires are in a plug, the live one, the grounded or earth wire and the neutral one, with all of them having an insulating plastic covering the copper wires.

Now the way we differentiate the wires so that we don't shock ourselves is the colours, brown being live meaning all the voltage flowing through the plug is going through the brown one and has the potential difference of 230 volts, the blue one is the neutral one that will complete the circuit, and lastly is the earth or ground wire, which is a stripped green wire and means 

AC & DC Current

An Alternating current which is commonly referered as AC, which is a type of current that will alternate between a positive and negitive charge, and this charge will fluctuate between voltages.
If your house is being supplied with 240 volts then the AC current will fluctuate between 240v to -240v, and it will aternate between the voltages on a set timer.

While a direct current or DC current is either a positive or negitive charge, since the positive charge is consistant, the most common use is in which makes it good for cells and batteries.

We can get graphs of the potental difference from the current is via a Oscilloscope, which measures the potental difference a current is producing by displaying it on a monitor, these monitors display the current in a wave.

How Temperature and PH levels affects the rate of reactions

Enzymes rely on temperature as the heat helps speed the reactivity, but for Enxymes to work efficiently they need to be at a stable temperature,
otherwise, if you keep increasing the heat it may break apart the bonds that hold the Enzyme together thus making the Enzyme change its active site which is where the Enzymes do their reactants if the shape change is too drastic then the Enzyme might not even help Catalyze by the Enzyme being unable to bind to the Substate.

The name of an Enzyme that has been hit with too much heat is called a Denatured Enzyme, if this does happen it is permanent and cannot be undone, Enzymes also have an optimal temperature and will work with high efficiency at a certain temperature, this is why our bodies always are 37.5 celsius.

Another deciding factor for Enzymes to be more efficient in catalysing is the PH level, which is a measurement of acidity in a substance, if the PH level is too high the rate the Enzyme can work decreases, and if the PH level too low, the Enzyme will also to be able to work at maximum efficiency. 
These changes in PH affect the Enzyme, since too low or high PH levels, change the active site of the Enzyme, sometimes it will still work but since the active site has been changed, how well the Enzyme can fit into the substrate will be worse.

Our bodies work best around 7 PH, but our stomachs work best around 2 PH since the insides of our stomachs are extremely acidic.

The National Grid

The National Grid is the network that distributes all the electricity in a city, usually the power comes from power stations, which normally produce lots of heat that then becomes thermal energy which then is turned into electricity.

The thing about power stations is that the amount of electricity they make is based on the amount of demand, the demand increases in the afternoon and evening, and since we use so much electricity in our daily lives, the power stations need to have extra capacity just in case, so often the stations run at much lower rate so that if there's a spike in electrical consumption they can output more power to satisfy the demand, which they can't do if they are running at high rates.

As we know the equation P=VT is power = voltage multiplied by time, but when high amounts of current flow through a wire, it causes the wire to heat up, this heat is then lost power, but if we need to transport this power all around the city or even the whole country this loss of power is extremely decremental.
But if we run a very low current, which is more efficient that would mean our voltage is going to be very high, meaning when we want to move the electricity around the country via the power lines and pylons we would need a way of increasing the voltage.

This is where Step-up transformers come in, they take the voltage from the power station and then turn up the voltage up to 400,000 volts then the cables transport it around the country.
Then after that, we would need a step-down transformer since 400,000 volts flowing into your house is too much if we were to pump that amount of voltage into a civilian house, firstly it would be very dangerous as if our devices or appliances they would explode having a high chance of losing lives.
In order to keep us safe from the high voltages is that we use a step-down transformer, that turns the 400,000 volts to roughly 230 volts. 

Ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds are different from ionic-bonded atoms.

As normal ionicly bonded atoms, they will lose their electrons and another element will gain them, causing the two atoms to be electrostatically attracted to each other. However, ionic compounds, have more than two atoms bonded together.

When this happens, the atoms will form in a sort of checkerboard pattern. If many atoms bond like this, the compound will be cube-shaped, which we named 'regular lattice structures." These structures will often be drawn or depicted as the cube shape. Still, with small spheres on its surfaces, another way we can depict this is we use a diagram named the "ball and stick diagram", which are similar but they instead draw or model each atom connected via a stick.

Something interesting about ionic compounds is that they have very high melting and boiling points, and they can conduct electricity, but most of the time we have to dissolve them in water or melt them down for electric conductivity, like putting salt in water to make the water more conductive, but what matters is the amount of charged particles

The boiling and melting points change depending on the strength of the bonds of atoms held together, and if the bonds in ionic compounds are very strong, more energy is required to break apart the bonds.

But if you want the ionic compound to conduct electricity, it first needs to have charged particles, if you take any solid it will be tough because all the bonds are stagnant, but if it melted or dissolved then the ions in the solid are free to move and conduct. 

In ionic compounds, one element would have to lose and one would have to gain an electron, for example, if you wish to write aa Sodium bonding with a Chlorine atom, which the Sodium has a +1 charge while the Chlorine has a -1 charge. 
So to have them bond, the Sodium would lose the electron while the Chlorine would gain one, thus, you would write this equation as NaCl+.  

But what happens if the atoms need more electrons to bond, what about Magnesium and Chloride, Magnesium needs to lose 2 electrons since it is in group 2 of the periodic table.
So the Magnesium loses 2 electrons to be a 2+ ion, then we need to balance it out, so we must take two Chlorine ions since one ion is only a -1, so if we were to write this out it would be MgCl2. 

Complex compounds like Calcium Hydroxide or Aluminium Sulfate are, more complicated as these ions aren't single elements so their atomic numbers or electron amounts are not on the table.

Instead, we will have to memorise it, for the Calcium Hydroxide is OH-, while the Aluminium Sulfate is SO42-.
Now we can look at the elements by themselves, Calcium is group 2 of the periodic table which means that Calcium or Ca has a +2 charge, while hydrogen is a -1 charge. 

Similar to the Chlorine atom, a single Hydroxide has a -1 charge, which means we need to put two of them in the CaOH- equation instead of one, the written formula for this is:
Ca(OH)2.
The reason why we put the 2 outside the brackets is because it means whatever is inside the brackets there is 2 of them. 

Now to tackle the Aluminium Sulfate, the Aluminium has a +3 charge, while the Sulfide ion has a -2 charge, this makes it a little bit more complicated because when two compounds bond they need to have the same amount of electrons.

But the problem is we can't add another electron to the Sulfate, in order for this to work we would need to first find the lowest multiple of both of the charges, which 3*2 is 6, so six is the smallest multiple we can find. 

So in order for this to work out we need 3 * 2 to get us 6, which we will take two Aluminium both of which are +3 charge, and three Sulfate ions, which means we have our 3 * 2.

So we would write this as: Al2(SO4)3. 

That's how we would write it, as we need 2 Al atoms the smaller scale 2 is there, then there is the SO4, which means the chemical writing for Sulfide, then the small 3 at the end means that there are three of the Sulfate ions. 

Other ionically bonded compounds are: NO3- for a Nitrate ion, a carbonate ion which is CO3^2-, and lastly is the Ammonium ion which is NH4+. 

Enzymes

For living organisms to survive, they need to carry out chemical reactions, which are often very slow, so to speed them up we normally apply heat to quicken the reaction.

Now, using heat has its side effects. If we use too much heat, the cells might get damaged, and it might also speed up reactions that we don't want.

In chemical and biological applications, Catalysts are substances that increase the rate that something happens and are not used up or changed,
Enzymes are biological catalysts made by living organisms. They are proteins, which are long chains of amino acids that can bend and fold, making them unique.

Enzymes work by taking a large structure, which we call a substrate, and breaking it down into smaller structures named products.
They can also do it in reverse, where they convert products into structures.

They also have a special region in them, which they can specify what they want to catalyze, and if the substrate doesn't match the catalysts, then it won't help catalyze the substrate.

There are two ways scientists thought it worked one way is the lock and key model, and then the induced fit model.
Before we figured out the induced fit model, we thought the catalyst needed to fit perfectly to the substrate being a 100% perfect match both ways, similar to what a lock and key is where the key has to be the same in order for the lock to open.

We do know now what the Enzyme will slightly reshape itself in order to help the substrate fit better, the Enzyme 'compliments' the substrate by fitting better, 

Parallel Circuits

Parallel circuits are circuits that have more than one loop, unlike series circuits, and each loop only has one component, making it more stable, meaning that if one component breaks, the whole circuit won't stop working.
We can also mix and match parallel and series circuits to add more components, an example of this is adding an on/off switch in the series circuit, which is connected to a parallel circuit.

Somthing different about parallel circuits is that since that all the compdennts get the same amout of potemntal difference, if we have a a parallel circuit with two compodents  on two loops and if the total amount of voltage going through the circuit is 4a, then either both compodents have the same amount of voltage taken (2a & 2a) each or they have an odd number like 3 & 1, if we add all of the amps in a circuit it should total to 4 reguardless. 

Eletricity likes to take the path of least-resistance, thats why electrical currents are stronger the lower the resistance the compident is, and the more compodents you add to a parallel circuit the lower the total resistsance will be,.

Ionic Bonding

As we know, atoms can bond together via ionic bonds, which happen when two atoms share the Valence electrons, which are the electrons on the outermost shell. 

Ions are created when an atom loses or gains an electron, this helps the atom to become stable, by having a full outer shell.

If we take Chlorine, which has 17 electrons in its shells and needs only one electron to form a Chlorine ion, the Chlorine atom will take that electron from another atom for example a Sodium atom or Na , which we write like this Cl+e- = Cl-.

But these don't happen by themselves, as the elections need a type of

Levels of Organization

The level of organization on the human includes: Organelles, Cells, Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems and Organisms.

Organelles are subcellular structures, things that are subcellular are Ribosomes, Mitochondria and the Nucleus.

And combined they make cells, which are all different, skin cells, blood cells, brain cells, these are specialised cells, which the scientific names of these cells are, Muscle cells, Glandular cells, and Epithelial cells. 

Next are tissues, these are groups of cells that work together to carry out functions like scar tissue, which is meant to cover up wounds to help them heal by shielding the wound from external sources, the epithelial cells combine together to make human skin along with the inside of our intestines.

The muscle tissue in our ligaments helps our body to move and flex, allowing us to grip things.

It also helps create chemicals and enzymes, like sweat, to cool our bodies and saliva, to help us digest food.

Next are our Organs. Once again, the tissues combine to make a larger structure, for example, the stomach, which breaks down food into proteins. Other things that tissues make are the lungs, teeth, bones, the digestive system and much more.

The organ's job is to 'carry out functions', which is similar to tissues, but can carry out larger processes compared to cells or tissues. These organs make systems like the Respiratory system, the Cardiovascular system, and the Reproductive system.

Then to make the whole organism, as you would need all of the organism's cells, tissues, organelles, organ systems and organs to make a functioning human body.

 

Foundation of ions.

Ions are charged particles, certain particles can form ions better than others, the reason why some elements want to become ions is because they want to have full outer shells to become stable molecules.

Elements need energy to lose or gain an Electron, so the fewer electrons an element has, the easier it is to lose them, for example, group 1 elements or the Alkali metals can lose their electrons very easily to become -2 ions.
Like group 6, which only needs to lose 2, and group 7, which only needs to gain one, groups 3-5 need to lose 3 electrons, making it harder for them.

We can depict these ions in equations, for example, an equation may look like this:
Na + e-.
This depicts a Sodium atom becoming a Sodium ion.

Cl + e- = Cl-.
This depicts a Chlorine atom becoming a Chlorine ion.

Now something to keep in mind is that when an atom is losing electrons and becoming a positive ion, then we put the electron on the right of the equation.
But if we put the electron on the left of the equation, it means the atom is combining with the electron to.

If an atom loses or gains multiple electrons, like an element like Magnesium, so we would write something like: Mg^2+ + 2e-, so this means Magnesium + 2 electrons.

Nicaragua

The country is named after the Nicaraguan tribe and Agua, which is the Spanish term for water.

Located in Central America, it is a bi-coastal nation with coasts on both the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, located under Honduras, and above Costa Rica.

The border between Nicaragua and Costa Rica is just enough so that Costa Rica doesn't get access to lake Nicaragua, which is named after the countries named after, the narrowest corridor is only 2 miles wide or 3.2km, then on the border of Costa Rica they take the whole Portello lake even though it is fully enclaved in Costa Rica.

The whole country is split into 15 departments with 2 autonomous regions, their capital Managua, directly below Lake Managua or Xolotan, which is where the largest airport is, Managua's Augusto Cesar International.

Around 89% of the population lives on the south-western part of the country, the main highway number 5 that ends in Puerto Cabezas, which connects to the Caribbean coast.

The port of Corinto, which is their largest port, often handles all the shipments. The west of the country is an uninterrupted coastline, with the east side being where all the offshore islands are. 
Such as the Cayos Miskitos Biological Reserve, and the Corn Islands, strangely, the two islands beside the reserve, the Providencia and San Andes islands, belong to Colombia. 
They also have territorial disputes with the USA over the island Bajo Nuevo and the Serranilla Banks islands with Brazil.

There is also an island named Isla Calero that both Nicaragua and Costa Rica wanted to own. But then in 2016, the International Court of Justice ruled that the island belongs to Costa Rica.  

Since Nicaragua doesn't have postal or street codes, they often describe where they live via landmarks and signs. And often the landmarks don't even exist anymore, so things can get confusing, they also have a unit of measurement named 'Vara' which is 84 centimeters. 

They did make a rail system in 2001 but it was discontinued.

Some sites of interest include:
The National Museum, the Ruins of León Viejo, the León Cathedral, the historl city of Granada, the Masay craft market (they sell lots of hammocks), the cliff carving of El Tisey, the Revolution Museum, cigar factories, the Zapadera monoliths and petroglyphs, Apoyo lagoon, the Matagalpa chocolate factory, La Maison du Chocolat (a chocolate spa), the Casitta volcano memorial, the San Jacinto mud pools, the Cayos Miskitos stilt houses, the city of Esteli, and you can sand-board down Cerro Negro which is the youngest volcano in latin america. 

They have a lot of volcanoes, as they are on the Ring of Fire, sandwiched between the North American plate and the Cocos plate, this gives Nicaragua a 'volcanic belt' which is a belt of volcanoes around the whole country, mainly dotting the south side with around 19 being active, the biggest being Sann Christobal.

Lake Managua or Xolotlan, which is the smaller one, and the largest lake, Lake Nicaragua or Cocibolca, which is the biggest lake in Nicaragua and in all of Central America. 
There are many volcanoes between these lakes, the largest two are Mototombo and Apoteque, situated near Managua, and there is Omotepe, which is an island made from the two volcanoes Mederas and Conception, situated in the middle of Lake Nicaragua.

Lake Nicaragua strangely drains to the east, flowing into the Caribbean via the San Juan river even though the lake is roughly 10 miles from the Pacific Ocean on the west coast, while the Honduras Rio Grande De Matagalpa.

The county is divided by three regions, the Pacific lowlands which has all the volcanos and where Lake Nicaragua is, then the North Central highlands with tallest peak in the country, Mogoton, and the finally the Caribean lowlands which is near the Caribean sea and dense rainforests and near the coast is where there are swampy wetlands, and is where the most rain happens with around 635cm or 250 inces of rainfall.

Masaya volcano constantly has bubbling lava, Samoto canyon has lakes and small rivers flowing throughout the canyon, and unfortunately, Lake Managua has a pollution problem with the area around it covered in garbage.

The sad thing about Nicaragua is that it ranks as the second poorest nation in the Western hemisphere after Haiti, when you compare their nominal GDP and GDP per capita, around 40% of the population lives off a dollar a day, with 15% of their money is sent via family members that work abroad.

They are a part of the IMF, the indebted countries that help poorer countries, and they have the lowest energy generation in Central America, using oil and generators for electricity, which caused them to have an energy crisis in 2006.
But the World Energy Council has dubbed Nicaragua the world's most geothermal energy potential country, since 10% of their energy is made by volcanos and heat.

They also have lots of animals here, and including bats, jaguars, primates along with the national bird, the Turquoise-browed Motmot.

Some food that is made and enjoyed here are: Frittinga (fried street food), Quesillo, Indio Viejo, Rondon, Chancho con yuca, Naca tamal, Vaho/Baho, Sopa mon Dongo, Pinolillo drink, Vigaron and Gallopinto.

In Central American states, they have nicknames, the Costa Ricans are Ticos, Salvadorians are Guanacos, Guatemalans are Chapin, Hondurans are Cathrachos, and Nicaraguans are Pinoleros.

They also have a saying "Soy puro Pinolero; ¡Nicaragüense por gracia de Dios", which means "I am totally Nicaraguan Pinalero by the grace of God".

With a population of 6.824 million people, and with one out of six Nicaraguans living in either Costa Rica or the USA, the population is around 69% Mestizos, with 17% whites with Spanish heritage, with around 9% being in the black community, and the last 5% being part of the Indigenous Ameradianian groups.

their current is the Cordoba, they use the type A American style plug outlets and they drive on the right side of the road.

They have very diverse people groups mainly due to their colonial past, from people like Christopher Columbus to French pirates.

They have the largest population of people of African descent in Central America and most live on the Caribbean coast, most of them were brought by the British during the colonial times when the Brits colonised what was then called the Miskito coast which is named after the Miskito tribe which inhabited the area, the people living there are now named the Garifuna tribe.

Their language is English or a type of English Creole, but their National language is Spanish.
Around 20 Indigenous groups with them being the Rama, Miskito or Sumo tribes, mainly coming of Aztec or Mayan descent, also cuss and use lots of curse words, strangely enough, they have the lowest homicide/murder rate in Central America (6-7 per 100k) and are very safe to travel around.

They are Roman Catholicism at around 58%, then about 1/3 are protestant and during conflicts are disrupted the Catholic church will act as a mediator, the religion of Nicaragua is a vital part of their identity along with their traditions like the colourful clothing of the Mestizaja costumes, they are good poets which they also have lots of folklore, some nice, some creepy like the La Carretangua. 
Weirdly enough a lot of the stories incorporate women, mainly ghost women like the La Ceuga, La Llorona and La Mocuana, diverting from their folklore, they also have a celebration called El Güegüense, which is on the Unesco Heritage list as an intangible heritage performed with masks and large costumes, this celebration is celebrated at the feast of Saint Sebastian.

Specialised Exchange Surfaces

These types of exchange surfaces are parts of an organism that exchange substances with the exterior envorment. 

Our exchange cells in our bodies are the Villi, and the Alveoli.
Its job is to exchange Oxygen and Carbon dioxide in our blood, but the Villi, which are our intestines, help with absorbing glucose and amino acids.

The roots in the bottom of the plant have their root hair cells, which help absorb the water in the surrounding soil, along with the leaves, to help them absorb CO2  in the air.

Something to help with these exchange surfaces is a large surface area, so by having hundreds of millions of Alveoli in our lungs, it makes it a larger surface area, having a large surface area increases the amount of diffusion and can also help with the diffusion rates. 

Another thing about diffusion surfaces is that they are often very thin because it makes the substances diffuse over a short distance, for root hair cells, the water only has to diffuse through a thin cell wall and membrane,
this is known as a 'short diffusion distance', which increased the speed with which the plant can absorb. 

Other types of diffusion surfaces are blood, as the blood has to flow and diffuse throughout the body, so having glucose dissolve into the blood that gets taken away to the intestines to then be replaced by more blood.

Another good thing to keep in mind is a 'good supply of external mediums', a good example of this is keeping a good supply of Oxygen for your lungs, when you breathe the Oxygen mixed with the Alveoli, which helps keep a steady concentration gradient for your bloodstream.

Series Circuits

Learning the difference between Series and Parallel circuits is important. 

In series circuits, the components are added in 'series' or in one line, as if they were all on one wire. The thing about this type of circuit is that if the wires break, the whole circuit stops working.
This also means that the potential difference is shared throughout the circuit.

You might get an equation like this :
Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3.

If we were to put a 12-volt cell or battery, and have two filament lamps on the circuit, both lamps have to add up to 12 volts

On the other hand, current is the same everywhere in the circuit. To measure it, we use ammeters, which are placed in series, and since they measure current, we can place them anywhere in the circuit.

Resistance is how much the component resists electricity, and the total resistance is a sum of how much all components resist, so to calculate the resistance in ohms, we need to know how much power our components resist. 

So, let's take a circuit and connect two filament lamps, one lamp requires 4 ohms, and the other requires 2 ohms.
The total amount of ohms is about 6 ohms, since it is 2 + 4.

Let's use the same 6 ohm circuit above and calculate the resistance of a single component.
We can use the equation "V=IR", which is named Ohm's law, the 'V' in the equation means voltage.
So, first we find the battery, which is 12v or 12 volts. 
We then divide the 12 volts by 6 because that's how many ohms are flowing into the circuit, to get 2A or two Ammeters, then which then means that the component had 2A of resistance, then we multiply the 2A by 2 ohms or 2*2 to get 4 volts. 

Something to keep in mind is that Ammeters do have resistances, it is such tiny resistances that we can practically ignore them, now if we want to get the voltage of the second component, we would need to do the equation again, or we could just do 12-4 to get us 8.

Because we know how many volts are flowing through the circuit, which is 12, we can just skip doing the math, so doing 12-4 gives us 8, so that means that the second component needs 8 volts.

There is another way to find out how much voltage each component uses in the circuit by using a Voltmeter, which is connected in parallel to the component which we want to check, so if we connect it to the 8 volt component, it would display 8v.

Keep in mind that even though the voltmeter is connected in parallel,
we still consider the circuit to be in series, also the components that have a higher resistance will require more voltage, than components that resist less.

 

Group 7 & Group 0 (Halogens & Noble Gases)

 Halogens are very dangerous, these are the Halogens:

Florine is a poisonous yellow gas and is very reactive.

Chlorine is less reactive than fluorine but is a poisonous green gas.

Bromine is a dark brown liquid, once again the odour and liquid are poisonous, and the vapour that it creates is heavy, so you can pour out its vapour from a glass ampule

Iodine is a dark purple solid that forms poisonous purple vapours, but it is also a commonly used antiseptic in medical applications. 

Tennessine.

Atatine.

But we will mainly talk about the elements starting from Florine to Iodine, but the elements Tennnessine and Atatine are still important to remember.

All halogens exist as pairs of atoms, referred to as diatomic molecules. This term indicates that these molecules consist of two atoms. They form these pairs by sharing electrons through covalent bonds. Additionally, halogens can bond with other non-metals, such as carbon or hydrogen, using the same covalent bonding mechanism.
Chlorine bonding with Carbon can get you Carbon Tetrachloride.

Unlike the Alkali metals, the Halogens increase their boiling and melting points the further down you go on the chart.
Along with the boiling points increasing, the reactivity decreases, making the elements less reactive.

The reason why they become less reactive is because the electrons get further from the positive nucleus.

When Halogen ionic bonds with metals and collects an electron to become a minus -1 electron, we call those Halides, so we change the 'ne' at the ends of the names of the Halogens so when Bromine bonds with a metal it becomes Bromide, Iodine becomes Iodide, Chlorine becomes Chloride, and Fluorine becomes Fluoride.

Most of the time they bond with the Alkali metals, an example is Sodium Chloride, the Sodium is an alkali metal while the Chloride is a Halogen.

Another thing that Halogens do is that they do something called 'Displacement Reactions', which means that the more reactive Halogen displace the less reactive ones.

So if we pumped some Chlorine gas into a solution of potassium bromide, so the chemical numbers would be Cl(g) + 2KBr (aq), since Chlorine is more reactive than Bromine, it will displace the Bromine causing the element to become 2kCl(aq).

Something to keep in mind is that more reactive Halogens will always displace less reactive ones.

Helium.

Neon.

Argon.

Krypton.

Xenon.

Radon.

They are named the Noble Gases, these are special because they have full outer shells, causing them to be inert and being unreactive, along with that, they are non-flammable and their boiling points increase the further you go down. 

 

Surface Area to Volume Ratio

If we take a look at smaller organisms, something to take notice of is that they can use diffusion to exchange substances with their environments.
If we look at humans, we need specialised systems for transport via the heart and blood vessels, like our intestines and lungs for breathing and expelling waste.

The single-celled organisms have to constantly be doing chemical reactions to survive, like gathering amino acids, glucose and Oxygen, and getting waste like carbon dioxide out.

Everything has a Surface area to Volume ratio, for example, a cell has a higher surface area to volume ratio than a cow, as when organisms increase in size, the surface area to volume ratio decreases.

Now calculating this kind of thing is a bit confusing for organisms, instead we will use a small 1cm by 1cm by 1cm cube.

To calculate the surface area, you must first get the length and the width of one face, and multiply them together, so 1cm*1cm is 1cm^2 or 1cm squared, then you multiply it by 6 because a cube is six-sided, to get 6cm^2.
To get the volume of the cube, you need to multiply three values, which in this case is 1cm*1cm*1cm, to get 1cm^3, or 1cm cubed.
So at the end it has a ratio of 6:1, because it is six times bigger than the volume of the cube.

Now if we take another cube and instead of it being 1cm*1cm*1cm, it is 2cm, first we take one face of the cube and multiply it by its height and width (2cm*2cm), then which gives us 2cm^2, then we multiply it by six because six-sided cube then we get 24.

Then the volume is 8, by multiplying all the values 2cm*2cm*2cm, giving us 8cm^3 or 8cm cubed, so putting it into an equation would give a ratio of 24:8, which we can simplify by dividing both equations by 8, which gives us a ratio of 3:1.

The Indus River Valley civilizations

The early civilization came from the river valleys, known as the Harappans, this civilization was in the area of modern-day Pakistan in the Indus Valley, dating as far back as 7,000 BCE.

Around 3,300 to 2,000 BCE, the early Indus Civilization appeared, and that's when the Acadians and the Sumerians began interacting, and then around the 3rd millennium was when the empire of Sargon the Great was established.

Then around the mature period, which is around 2600 BCE, is where most of the advanced structures were found, and if we go to Egypt, around 2500 BCE is roughly when the Pyramids were built.

Then around 1600 BCE is considered the late Indus Valley civilization, which is where the Babylonian empire was founded.

The Punjab region in Pakistan is where most of our archaeological dig sites are about the Indus Valley Civilization, found around Harappa, which is why it is known as the Harappan civilization too, the largest site is Mohenjo-Daro in the Sindh region.
We believe that over 40,000 people were living in that region alone, with around Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, there are over 1000 sites scattered all around both regions.

The reason why we think that this is a civilization is because of the sheer size of it all, the standardization of measurement and weight, we have found them using a measurement of 1.6mm which is precise, we can speculate that there was some cultural interchange, sin they were using bricks that were a standard size so measurements were needed.

In Mohenjo-Daro, we found some sites that these people lived in, from citadels, to public baths, and what was impressive is that we found sewerage systems for carrying waste, along with houses with wells.
Their jewellery is intricate and complicated with shells gathered from the Arabian Peninsula, and the type of jewellery was not only found at these sites but also in Mesopotamia too, and we speculate that there were probably ships transporting cargo from Mesopotamia and the now modern-day Mohenjo-Daro region. 
Materials from what is now modern-day China and India, they also had their own writing system and they also made Symbols along with a wee known symbol of a Nazi Swastikas', before Hitler used in his campaigns it is a common symbol in Hinduism, often meaning good luck,.
But we don't really know much about them, other than the stuff we found at dig sites, and since we can't decipher their writing.

One of the strangest things about the Indus Valley Civilization is 'why did it end', they seemed to be thriving with good ties and imports from other civilizations, some ideas on why it ended were maybe they were invaded, some other theories are that it was because of climate change.

As one of the earliest civilizations on earth, with speculation that their whole population may reach 5 million, they used bricks and drainage systems for sewage, non-residential buildings, and water systems.
The civilisation started declining around 1800 BCE, and the drains and waterways started to become clogged, their writing started to fade, and the weights used in measuring were starting to fall out of use.   

Around 2600 BCE, is when the early Harrapan civilization started developing urban centres, the cities of Harappa, Ganeriwala and Mohenjo-Daro in what is now modern-day Pakistan.
And Dholaviva, Kalibangan, Rakhgarhi, Rupar and Lothal in modern-day India, in baths and the sewage systems they used, fire-baked bricks since they can hold up to moisture.

Around 23,000 people lived in Harappa, which we know was a fortified city along with the religious and government centres in what is modern-day Pakistan,
The houses were built of red sand and clay, spanning over 150 hectares, which is 370 acres.
The cities had citadels, which were at the centre of the civilization. Since the Indus River had elevated areas, the Harappans fortified them to have a large, bird's-eye view of the whole area. 

Along with the expansive sewage system they made, and the public baths, we also found they had garbage collection, and they also also had a high regard for spiritual piety and hygiene. 

With their advanced architecture, they built dockyards, warehouses, granaries for grain storage, and large walls to protect them from invasions and floods.
Strangely, unlike Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, they did not build large structures or monuments. 

Because the standardized bricks were all the same size, we assume that they did make a measurement system of sorts. Because the bricks were uniform, we can tell that their sphere of influence was big due to the spread of civilization.

They are the first civilization that we know of that made sewage and plumbing systems, what's interesting is these systems made during this time are more effective and advanced than some 3rd world countries.
Some homes drew water from wells, and all the houses were connected to the sewage system, even the houses on the outskirts of the city, this evidently means that they had high regard for themselves to be sanitary and clean.

The Harappans also did seal making, which was used in stamps to mark goods, carvings like water buffalos, tigers and elephants were artefacts found by archaeologists.
They also made strides in metalwork, with metals like Tin, Copper, Bronze lead, and others, they also used a semi-rare gemstone, Carnelian, which is dark orange in colour, which they used in jewellery.

The Harappans also traded maritimely with others and had a trading network spanning the Middle East to central Asia. They also may have been the first to use wheeled carts pulled by oxen, and they also did shell work with their maritime imports from what is now modern-day Oman.

The majority of their imports are from places like modern-day China for jade, and India for copper and lead, they mainly traded pottery like terracotta pots, sea shells, precious metals and coloured gemstones like lapis lazuli and turquoise, pearls and jade.

They were a part of the Chalcolithic period, also known as the Copper Age, which is around 4300 - 3200 BCE, which showed an uptake of making more pottery that was very similar to the pottery by the Harappans, Turkmenistan and northern Iran. 

Then there is the early Harappan period, which is around 3200 -2600 BCE, and there are many similarities with other civilizations in their culture, By way, they make their seals and use them to mark goods, along with mystical animals like unicorns.

We also found a seal depicting Mohinjo-Daro, a half-human, half-buffalo monster fighting a tiger. This might symbolise the fighting of Gilgamesh, a known folk hero in Mesopotamian poems, and Aruru, the Sumerian earth and fertility goddess.

When we excavated these sites in the Indus Valley, we saw the art and culture of the Indus Valley civilisation, sculptures, and figures made from bronze, terracotta, and steatite.
Along with gold jewellery and a head of what we presume to be a priest wearing a robe, we have also found another statue of what we have dubbed the dancing girl. It looks like a girl with one hand on her right hip. We have also found other terracotta sculptures, including animals like bears, cows, and monkeys. 

We also know they were very organised, due to their hierarchies, their evenly sized and spaced out bricks, their seals and weights are well balanced and were similar in weight, with everything so uniform and well balanced we know that there was a kind of central government or governing body making sure it all of them were correct and proper.

Several theories say what kind of governing body they had, some say it was a central governing state, and some say that the whole thing was similar to a state-controlled area.
Meaning that the whole thing was organised by one governing body, sign that this might be true was that there was evidence that there were settlements that were nearby raw materials and similar artefacts.

There is another theory that states that the Harappan civilization had a group of leaders each governing their respective region, instead, the theory is that there is no centralized state, other people have theorised that there was no central government and everyone was considered an equal. 

We have found some written materials that gave us great insight into the Anchent Mesopotamian and Egypt civilizations, but unfortunately, since the script is so difficult to decipher the script compared to the Egyptian script Hieroglyphs which we already figured out how to read, the Indus scripts are still a mystery to us, because we can't understand the script, other than finding artefacts, the majority of our knowledge on it is purely either guesswork or with deducting what they did via clues like the fact we know they traded with others, and were sea-faring people.

We also have not come across any elite burials, meaning no graves we have found that looked to be the tomb of a king or queen or someone with high status, maybe its because they believed in a different afterlife, or didn't believe in any at all.

But this doesn't rule out the social hierarchy, as we have found that there were differently sized houses, often meaning the bigger the house the more socially or economically the person was, along with the location of the house also symbolising the amount of wealth they had.

We also believe that the Harappans were not into much warfare as they were peaceful, at least we think so as we did find weapons at dig sites but we assume they did not involve themselves in war maybe because of their location or sheer population size.

The Indus Valley Civilization started its decline around 1800 BCE, some theories are that there was a great flood, climate change or the drying of the Sarawati river which hapened around 1900 BCE.
One other theory states that the large civilization broke  up into smaller communities  which we called them the late Harappan cultures. 

Another way they could had their decline was the moonsoons, which was maybe a detrement to their livestock and crops.

The theory that mkes the most sense is during 1800 BCE decline, the Indus Valley became cooler and dryer and a potental earthquake causing the rivers to be disrupted, and causing the Harappans to move since their form of water is non-existanent, they may have tried to go to the Ganges lake in the east, but since they had a large population and they wen't able to trade since of their lack of resourses, and slowly abandoned their civilization by 1700 BCE.

Components

Components are used in circuits for electricity to flow, and we write these components via symbols.

Firstly, we write multiple vertical lines to depict a Cell or Battery, which powers the circuit.

Wires are written as lines and normally straight, and they carry the current throughout the circuit.

A Fuse is a rectangle with a wire running through it. Its purpose is to prevent the device from being overloaded. When too much power flows through the circuit, the fuse breaks, cutting power.

For switches, it will look like two circles connected via a short line between them, when the line is connected it means the current can flow, but when the switch's line isn't it means the current can't flow.

Then a Diode is a component that only allows current to flow a certain way, a form of diode is a Light Admitting Diode or LED, which lights up when electricity flows through it.

Now, for measuring current, we have Ammeters, which are put in series or connected through the circuit, and Volumeters, which are used for measuring potential difference and are  added in parallel, usually outside the circuit.

Lastly, we have resistors, which 'resist' the current to a specified amount, certain components can only function at certain amounts of electricity, if we put too much power into a component it might fry the circuits and the components might smoke or catch on fire, for example, when you charge your phone, it has resistors in the plug to not take too much power so that the internals don't fry.
Along with normal basic resistors, there are also variable resistors that can be modified so that they resist more or less current based on the situation.

Light-dependent resistors use light as a way of varying the amount of resistance, if you put them in a bright environment will resist a lot less than in a dark one as the darker it gets the more they will resist an application many people use these LDR's is in automatic nightlights which turn on when the lights in the room are off.

Thermistors use heat to vary the resistance so the more heat the less resistant the resistor becomes, and the colder it gets the more resistant it becomes.

Charge, Current & Time

A charge is a measurement of current that flows through a window of time, such as the amount of charge that flows through a wire in a minute or hour. 

We write charge with the letter Q, and the name of this measurement for change is Coulombs, so an equation of this would be:
Q=A*T, or Q (charge), is equal to A which is amps, multiplied by T, which is time usually written in seconds unless specified. 

So in an equation, it would look something like this:

    "A kettle draws 12 amps and takes 50 seconds to boil, how much charge has passed          through the wire."

Since we have amps as the voltage and we were given an amount of time, the math is easy, first, we multiply the 12 * 50, which provides us with 600 coulombs or charge.

What about another equation:

    "A phone charger takes a total charge of 43.2Kc (43.2 kilo-coulombs) over 2 hours,             what amount of current has flowed through the wire"

First, we change the equation to match the problem, so we will use:
I=Q/T.

Now, we multiply 43.2kC by 1000. Since a kilo is 1000, we convert it to 43,000c or 43,000 coulombs.
However, since we use seconds instead of hours in our equation, we have to multiply 2 hours by 60 to get 120 minutes, then another 60 to get seconds. 
Which is around 7,200 seconds, now we just plug in the 43,000 / 7,200, which gives us around 6a or 6 amps. 

The Standard of Ur

The Standard of Ur is 4500 years old and comes from the city-state of Ur now in present-day Iraq.

Normally standards are banners and flags that were used in war, but the standard of Ur is different since it was intentionally buried and found in tombs, or Royal Tombs dubbed by Leonard Woodlly excavated in the early 20s and early 30s.

But Woolly discovered one piece, which we dubbed the Standard of Ur. It might have been used as a storage device, a musical instrument, or currency.

It is a long rectangular. On one wall, an artwork depicts peace and prosperity, farmers growing crops, and cattle being moved. The rectangle is split into three registers or horizontal segments. 

The colours on the standard of Ur are interesting because many of the materials used in the standard we brought in from neighbouring civilizations.
For example, the blue on the standard was brought in from Afghanistan, the red stone from modern-day India, and the shell came from the Gulf south of now current-day Iraq.

Once again the reason why importing materials and working with other civilizations worked is because of Agriculture, as with agriculture everyone in their group did not have to worry about gathering food and was able to obtain a surplus of food, and were able to branch out to the extent of meeting other people.

Now back to the standard, on it is the 3 horizontal segments, the bottom row is mainly working-class people, depicted transporting goods to a destination.

The middle row is people with animals, some sheep and bulls, these animals might get sacrificed in the form of an income tax or service.

Lastly is the top row, with what looks to be a king on a throne with people sitting down and watching him, with an entertainer playing an instrument, and somewhat looks to be people taking an audience with the king holding cups or chalices.

Now the backside of the standard is a totally different story, it is still three horizontal rows, but now instead the back of the standard depicts a war or things that were brought into war, such as chariots and people with spears.

The bottom row is what looks to be one chariot drawn in impact frames as starts from a walk to a gallop to a sprint, pulled by male donkeys, one man maybe an enemy or ally has clearly fallen over, with blood spilling out where a horse had possibly stepped on him.

The middle row looks to be a structured army, on one half of the drawing, showing them in a line possibly marching to war, the middle standard depicts the army defeating their enemies, while the the right side depicts captured prisoners of war or POWs.

At the top row is what looks to be a large figure possibly the king is in the centre the left side has a group of soldiers and a chariot while the right side is POWs being handed to the king, they seem to not be wearing much clothing and being very bloody when being handed over.

Active Transport

Active transport works in root hair cells in plants, for example, we can use diffusion to compare it.

When we talk about diffusion it is particles going from a region of high concentration to low concentration, this takes no energy from the cell, as it is a passive process.

Active Transport is the movement of molecules that go against to concentration gradient, and that does require energy from the cell, which is ann active process. 
It also always happens across a cell membrane, in which special proteins transfer molecules across the cell membrane.

In a plant, all the energy comes from solar respiration, which happens in the mitochondria which break down glucose to create energy for the plant, and the mitochondria store the energy in things called ATP, which are basically batteries, transporting the energy from the mitochondria and moving it around the plant.

Let's take a plant as an example of active transport, this plant needs energy to function and mineral ions to survive, which it gets from the soil, which they use roots to gather these, there are cells on the roots which are named root hair cells which help absorb all the minerals the plant needs from the surrounding soil. 

The plant needs certain minerals the plant needs mainly nitrates to produce proteins and magnesium for chlorophyll since they need to gather the minerals the plant has to absorb the minerals via active transport going against their concentration gradient, the reason why the plant can't absorb the minerals via diffusion is that there is a higher concentration of magnesium and nitrates in the root cells than the soil, so active transportation is necessary, in the root hair cells are a lot of mitochondria, which help with energy in the cell.

Alkali Metals - Group 1

 Alkali metals are a different type of metal, these metals are as follows, from top to bottom.

Lithium.

Sodium.

Potassium.

Rubidium.

Caesium.

Francium.

These elements unlike most other metals, have low melting points, are brittle and have very low densities, Caesium, for example, explodes at room temperature and is reactive to Oxygen, and they get more reactive the further you go down the chart, and for another example, lithium which is used in lithium-ion batteries are explosive when in contact with water. 

Along with being more reactive the boiling points and the melting points decrease meaning the further you go down the easier it is to melt or boil the water, the reason why these elements or atoms are so unstable is that they only have one electron in their outer shell,
and since they only have one electron in their outermost shell, another reason why they are extremely reactive is because the single electron is on the outer-most shell which is very far from the central nucleus of their atom.

They often combine with non-metals to form ionic compounds, these happen by the Alkali atom donates its singular electron to another element.
Which in this case will be a Chlorine atom, when the Sodium atom loses its electron it becomes an ion, and since the Chlorine atom gains an electron it becomes negatively charged while the Sodium atom becomes positively charged thus making them both attracted to each other. 

When an Alkali metal comes in contact with water, it forms Metal-Hydroxide and Hydrogen gas, which in chemical terms would be written as:
2Na + 2H20 = 2NaOH + H2.

But from Potassium onwards, the elements get so reactive that they will ignite the hydrogen gas, and we know hydrogen gas is very explosive. 

Na+ Cl = NaCl, or Sodium + Chlorine = Sodium-Chloride, this ionic compound is a common table salt which is used in foods.

When these Alkali metals come in contact with Oxygen, they become metal oxides, for example, if we take Lithium and mix it with oxygen we get Lithium Oxide or Li20, or if we take Sodium and combine it with Oxygen we get Sodium Oxide or Na20, 
Or Potatsium and Oxygen we get Potasssium Peroxide or K2O2, or KO2, which is Potassium superoxide.

V = IR Equation & I-V Graphs

Let's take some amps and some ohms, and take 4a (4 amps), and 2Ω(ohms).

We would multiply the 4a * 2Ω, and it would be 8v or 8 volts, so if we take a 24v battery and it is producing the current of 8a, then it would be 24v/8a which would be 3Ω or 3 ohms.

Let's make a graph, shaped like a plus sign, and let's put the top number I for the current, and V for the differential difference. 
And it's a very straight line, a straight 45° incline. Now along as we are using wires and resistors that line will be very straight, but now if we add more resistors, the incline changes to around 25°, or if we use less it would be a more 75° incline. 

Now what about Filament lamps and Diodes, filament lamps work by heating up via electricity allowing them to emit light, now if we put in a lot of electricity to let the lamp glow, it starts to be weaker the more power we put in it since when the lamp heats up it increases resistance.

Now Diodes only work when the current is positive, how it works is they have they have a really strong resistance to negative currents.

Osmosis

Diffusion is when particles go from a place of high concentration to a low concentration, Osmosis is similar to diffusion but mainly for water.

Water concentration is the amount of other molecules most commonly sugars and salts, and how much is dissolved in the water. 
These molecules that dissolve in the water are named solutes, so if we take two beakers and fill both with water and then put one solute in the left beaker, and put 3 in the right beaker we would have a higher amount of solute concentration.

What matters is the amount of solute that is in the beaker, because that's what dictates the water concentration.

 

Metal and Non-Metals

Most of the elements on the periodic table are metals, these metal elements form positive ions when reacting, while most non-metals don't form anything.

To our knowledge, all atoms want a full outer shell to be stable. If an element is found on the left, the number of electrons on its outmost shell is less than on the right side of the shell.   

Metals become more reactive the lower you go on the periodic table because the further you go down, the more shells an element has. For example, Lead or Pb has six shells.
And since the positively charged nucleus is what keeps the electrons in their place, and the lead atom's electrons are far away from the nucleus, the lead atom can lose the electrons easily, this feature is what makes the bottom-most atoms more reactive than the ones at the top. 

Metals are metallic bonding, which is special as their bonds are special to their element, and are very strong compared to other types of bonds, things that metals can do are as follows:

Copper has high melting points, is malleable can be bent or hammered into shape, and is a great conductor of heat and electricity. That's why we use copper in wires so often.
Another thing that metals can do is be sonorous which is the ability to make loud sounds when struck, this is why we use them in gongs, and commonly shiny metals are often used in jewellery.

Compared to non-metals which are very dull in colour and are often terrible at conducting electricity like wood, have low melting points and are brittle, they have lower densities compared to metals making them lighter in weight.

Transition metals are found at the centre of the periodic table, they share the same qualities as metal but they have some other properties, one of the things that are different about these transition metals is that they can form more than ions.

Let's take a transition metal, Chromium, which can form 2+, 3+, and 6+ ions, these transition metals are often coloured, so if we take their liquid forms +2 would be blue, +3 would be green, and then +6 would be orange. 
Chromium is a catalyst, which increases the rate of a chemical reaction, without being in the reaction themselves. 

For example, iron is used in our bodies to harber processes, while nickel is used in the hydrogenation of Alkenes, which the alkenes are used in margarine.

Ciruits

 Most circuits are made out of components, and circuits are made in closed loops. 

The most common way a circuit is powered is by a cell, connected via a wire, one of the most common components in circuits are filament lamps, which are connected via the wire, and glow when connected to the cell or battery.

We can also connect a switch to the wire so that we can stop the flow of electricity from reaching the bulb. 

Sometimes you would write I electricity, when measuring electricity flowing through a wire they are named amps, or amperes are written with the letter A.

Potential Difference is the force driving the electricity around the wire, supplied by the battery or cell. It is like the pump that pumps the electricity through the wires.

Then, there is voltage, which is measured in Volts or V and is electricity supplied by the cell or battery.

Lastly, there is resistance which resists the flow of elections it slows down the speed of electrons we name it ohms using the Greek letter omega Ω

So when we are writing out a circuit, we first need a cell or battery, most commonly written by 2 lines, parallel to each other, one line taller than the other, the taller line is positive and the shorter one is negative, and electricity will flow from the positive side to the negative side.

New Zealand

New Zealand is often forgotten on maps, even their own government 404 page shows a world map with New Zealand missing.

Located 1200 miles or 2000km away from Australia and 600 miles or 1000km away from New Caledonia, Tonga and Fiji, New Caledonia is French, meaning that France is their nearest neighbour.

The country is made up of two main islands, the main island is the North Island or Te-Ika A-Maui, which holds around 3/4ths of the population and has a land mass of about 42% of both islands, and the bigger but less populated island is the South Island or Te Waipou-Namu with around 56% of the landmass.  
The last 2% of New Zealand is made out of 33 smaller islands off the coasts, the largest of them being Stewart Island, south ofthe  South Island,
then the northern Kermadec Islands, and then on the east side the Chatham Islands.

New Zealand is a unitary state divided into 16 councils, with 11 regional councils and 5 unitary councils, while theChathamm Islands act independently as a separate territory authority. 

The second largest city Wellington, holds the title of the most southern city in the world, but Auckland, which is in the north, is the capital city, with around 1/3rd of the population, and it has the largest and busiest airport, Auckland International. 
The 3d largest city is Christchurch, which is on the South Island, and it has the second busiest airport, Christchurch International. 

New Zealand has more land than just these, as they also have 3 New Zealand Island territories, and free-associated Island nations, with them being Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue.

Tokelau considers itself as a Non-self Governing Independent territory, and they have a territory dispute against American Samoa on Swains Island.

Both Niue and the Cook Islands are self-governing states in free association with New Zealand.
Along with the fact that Tokalau has 2500+ people on less than 5 square miles of land over 3 islands, they did become the first fully solar-powered country in the world, but not a 'sovereign' nation-state, but they kinda count.

Then there is the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealand's claim for Antarctica since they are the closest, but they cannot claim part of Antarctica because of the Antarctic Treat, which states that no nation can claim land on Antarctica.

But the strange part comes when we want to place New Zealand in a continent, most say it is part of the region of Oceania, which is Australia and everything else in Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia.
We tried to group New Zealand and Australia in one region named Australasia but it doesn't share a continent with Australia. 
So we made a sub-continent called Zealandia, the name comes from a man named Bruce Lyuendyk, who said it is more a Micro continent or a Continental fragment.

Places to visit include:
The world's steepest street at an incline of 38°, the Auckland Museum, the Auckland Sky Tower you can jump over via bungee jumping, the Maori village in Rotorua, the International Antarctic Center, Hobbiton (the film location of The Hobbit), Marlborough wine fields, the 90-mile beach (actually it is 56 miles or 90km), Waitomo caves with glow worms, frying pan lake the largest boiling lake in the world, the Maraki sphereical boulders. 

The scenery here makes this a very good place for filming movies, movies like: Mission Impossible Fallout, Lord of the Rings, and Narnia.

New Zealand is in the Ring of Fire on the convergence of the Pacific and Australian plates, in the south, the tallest pea,  Mount Cook or Aoraki, at 12,000 feet or 3,700 meters. 
The Kaweka mountain range can be found in the north, since it is in the ring of fire, it is affected by earthquakes and volcanic activity, with 83 known volcanoes on the island, with the largest one, Ruapehu, on the North Island. 

On South Island, there is a bank peninsula, and the nearly perfect circle on Mount Taranaki, along with Mount Taranaki Lake Taupo in the Taupo Calder, which is one of the largest supervolcanoes on earth, then following the lake is the longest river in the country, the Waikato.

Since the country is shaped weirdly, no place in the country is more than 80 miles or 128km from the ocean, in the southern parts of the country, which hold the majority of the population, live, and iare wheremost of the crops and livestock of the country are. 

But one of the most interesting parts of New Zealand is the Fiordlands near the Tasman Sea, and Milford Sound is the most popular due to it being able to be accessed via roads.

Due to their location, New Zealand's land is very diverse, along with being volcanic, so they have geothermal geysers, and being near the south means they have glaciers, alpine forests, and even a small desert in the middle of the North Island.

There is a special type of beach containing magnetite named Magnetic Sand Beaches, in which the sand is magnetic. 

Other than 2 species of bats, there were no other mammals or warm-blooded creatures before humans stepped foot on the island. 

With over 200 species of birds, over half of them are naturally found in New Zealand, strangely, most of the birds here are flightless, like the kiwi and the Kapako, which is Earth's only nocturnal parrot. And since they live near the South Pole, they have more species of penguins than anywhere else on earth. 

A long time ago, the bird known as the Moa, which inhabited New Zealand, was 12 feet tall and was hunted to extinction by the Maori. 

Their national animal, the flightless Kiwi bird, comes in 5 forms on both islands, having the very well-known kiwi shape and also their long beaks, which have nostrils, making them one of the few bird species that can smell.

They also have the Kea which is the world's only alpine parrot, they often like interacting with humans and like to chew on soft objects like rubber, along with bird they also have reptiles, one of which is the Tuatara, which has a 3rd perennial eye on the top of its head, and from the insects is the Giant Weta, which is the heaviest insect on earth.

Jade or Greenstone, which is mined and sold here, is often depicted in paintings and Maori tools and jewellery. The majority of the income comes from the tourism sector, normally on New Zealand's South Islan, which has many activities to d  su,ch as skydiving, paragliding and zzorbinging which is people in large balls.

Since they live very near the sea, they have lots of seafood, species like Hoki, Hake, Paua, Hapaku, Gurnard, and Crayfish are some of the seafood eaten here.

Other than the seafood, they have other stuff like roast lamb, savoury meat pies, hokey pokey icecream, Kiwi burger made with egg and beetroot, manuka honey kumara a Polynesian sweet potato, pavlova, and Hangi which is co d underground oven cooked meal in Rotorua they use the geothermal heat to cook it.

They are the people of New Zealand, known as...Kiwis, with 5.2 million living in New Zealand, are in the top 3 of the ease of business index countries with the least corruption, with around 74% of the population being of European descent with British, Scottish and Irish ancestry.
Around 15% are native Maori people, 7% are Pacific islanders, and the rest are mainly from other countries like Japan, China, Korea and others.

Their currency is the New Zealand Dollar, they use the type I plug outlet, and they drive on the left side of the road.

Their national language is English, and they have a "Kiwi dialect", which sounds very similar to Australian but isn't.
There are two other languages, such as Maori and the NZ sign language, which is the New Zealand Sign language. 

The Maori come from 100+ tribes or Iwi, which are scattered around the country, on both sides of New Zealand, the largest tribe being the Nga Puhi in the north with over 100,000+ people belonging to this tribe, most schools teach Maori in elementary and there are Maori immersion schools to teach students about Maori culture,
they also have couple radio station and television channels that speak only in Maori, most of the Maori speakers are from the Northland is Gisborne regions, along with the Maori is the Haka war dance, which is known to look very aggressive with lots of loud chanting and being intimidating. This dance is usually performed at ceremonies like weddings, birthday parties, and sporting events. 

They have their own types of tattoos known as Kiri-turi, which are the arm and body tattoos, and then Ta-Moko, which are the face tattoos, since the old Maori did not have a type of script, they relied on types of tattoos and wood carvings to tell stories.
For men, the back tattoos often depict their family, where the left side of the body is meant for the father's side, while the right is for the mother's, usually these tattoos tell stories of their accomplishments and achievements, from feats of athleticism or expertise. 

Kiwi's (the people) are very athletic, known for their Rugby, and are 3-time world champion winners, and if they don't win, they often place top 3.

For the brief history of New Zealand:
Before the 1200s the country was a bird island, then around 1280-1300 the Maori come in to the island, then the Maori Pa settlements on the island, maybe around the 1500s is when the largest big the Moa was hunted to extinction, tribal battles to acquire more land, then the Abel tasmen journey a.k.a the first European contact, then the British come in around 1700, then more tribal wars but with guns this time, missionaries, then they become a British colony, then the New Zealand wars, then the Treaty of Waitangi, self-governable under the British, they were the first country to allow women to vote, immigration, then in WW1 they played a role in Samoa, then after during WW2 helped Papa New Guina with the Japanese, the Statue of Westmister Adoption (their independence day), Maldoon getting drunk and losing an election, 1980s Rogernomics, the they do very well economically in the 2000s, Christchurch earthquake in 2011.

Now some famous people from New Zealand or of New Zealand descent are:
Hone Hika (Maori Leader),
Hone Heke (another Maori leader),
(Princess) Te Puea Herangi, Maui Pomare, Patato Te Wherowhero,
Ernest Rutherford ("Father of Nuclear Physics),
Kate Sheppard,
Sir Apirana Ngata,
Sir Edmund Hillery (One of the first people to reach the summit of Mount Everest),
Sir Peter Jackson,
Jaccinda Ardern (the youngest head of  government in the world),
Russle Crowe (actor),
Jonah Lomu (rugby player),
Collin Meads (another rugby player),
Dame Whina Cooper (Maoro activist),
Flight of the Concords (a comedy musical group),
Bruse McLaren (racer),
Kathrine Mansfield (writer),
Lorde (Ella Marija Lani Yelich-O'Connor, song writer/singer),
and YouTube channel and meme page Dolan dark.

Since they get along with everyone, and are a part of APEC and the Colomo plan and others, they have close ties to Chile, South Africa, Argentina, Uruguay, since they are under the CCAMLR or The Conservation of Antarctic Marine living Resources.
They monitor Antarctica and the south seas, their relations to China are a bit weird as the Chinese have been living in New Zealand since the 19th century, then in 2008, they set up a free trade agreement.
But the thing is that the Chinese have bought out many houses in New Zealand to the point that there are practically no homes for their own kiwis. 

Since they are a former British colony, they have close ties with the British, the USA, Canada, and Australia, which are very close to them, they helped the USA for practically every global event since the 20th century, and are extremely close to Canada And Australia because they were both commonwealth nations.

But Australia being their greatest ally, since they have very good trade between the two nations and are close via their culture and history, they also allow both citizens from both countries to be able to migrate and have automatic residency.

Diffusion

When Molecules are left alone, they will want to want to move randomly, the proper term is that the particles will move from a place with high concentration to a place with a lower concentration. 

This can happen in gasses and liquids, for example when you spray perfume it diffuses throughout the air so it is very fragrant, 
or smoke comes out of the car the gasses from the car's exhaust disperse into the air, and if you add food colouring to water.

Diffusion can also occur through materials like cell membranes, usually only really small things can fit through cell membranes, things like water, glucose and amino acids can pass through cell membranes. 

There are three types of diffusion:

Firstly is the Concentration gradient, the larger the concentration gradient the higher the rate of diffusion if we were hypothetically to have two boxes, one on top and one on the bottom, and we put more particles inside the top box and put very little in the bottom one. 

The top one would have a harder time passing through the cell membrane compared to the bottom one since they have a different amount of particles one having much more than others. 

The second is Temperature, the reason is that particles will move faster due to the heat and that the heat gives the particles more energy, a higher temperature helps with the rate of diffusion. 

Lastly is a Surface area, which the higher surface area the higher rate of diffusion,