Andean and Chavín civilizations

Several people groups that lived in the Andean region in South America, such as the Chavín and the Caral or Norte Chico.

The Caral:

The Caral or Norte Chico civilisations lived in what is now north-central coastal Peru, and lived around 3500-1700 BCE. They were a specialised and complex society, as their people had specialities.
Some argue that the Caral is the oldest civilisation in the Americas region, but others dispute it, saying that there is not enough evidence to support such claims. 

The Caral built large earthwork mounds with circular plazas sunken into the ground; their occupied area was around 150 acres.

Instead of growing agricultural crops like other civilisations, they mainly grew cotton, which was mainly used for textiles, clothing and fishnets, and they gathered most of their food from the sea.

Throughout the excavations we did of the Caral dig sites, we found a lack of ceramic pottery for food preservation.

Clay pottery was one of the main ways for storing food for long periods of time, and since they gathered most of their food from the nearby sea, and did not preserve grown food, some argue that the Caral do not fit the criteria for a full Civilization.

Some artifacts of the Caral include flutes made of bird bones, a type of deer and llama bones named "cornetts".
These animals were also used for their diet, and these animals were probably hunted in the wild instead of being domesticated.

Another type of artifacts we found was the Quipu, which dates back to 1500 CE, and was used by Andean civilizations including the Incas, to store information. It was capable of recording transactions and doing calculations.

This was also one of the reasons why some people argue that they were not a full civilisation since they didn't have a formal written system.

The Chavín:

The Olmec

The Olmec was an ancient American civilisation that lived in what is now modern-day Mexico, around the states of Tabasco and Veracruz, and they survived from about 1,600 - 350 BCE.

The Olmec were famous for building large 20-ton stone heads in the shape of their rulers to represent them. The word Olmec comes from the word rubber people in the Aztec language, as the Olmec would trade rubber with other civilisations for goods. 

The Olmec was one of the first major civilisations in Mexico.
As stated above, the name Olmec comes from the word rubber people, meaning it could have been one of the first civilisations to be able to turn the sap from the rubber tree into usable materials by hardening, shaping and curing it. 

The Olmec didn't have a written language, so it is speculated that it was an oral one and unwritten.

They appeared roughly around 1600 BCE The Olmecs were one of the first Mesoamerican civilisations.
They were famous for carving structures out of a special volcanic rock named Basalt.

It is also speculated that they have influenced future civilisations like the Mayans, and were the creators of the Mesoamerican ballgame, or the Mayan death-ball games played with rubber balls and the game, which was a form of ritual bloodletting.

They hardly kept written records and documents about their customs or beliefs, but it is well known that they had extensive trade routes since archaeologists could find the Olmec's traded goods all around Mesoamerica.

Often trading Obsidian and Jade with people outside the Gulf of Mexico, most of Oaxaca, and what is now the country of Guatemala in the south.

While the obsidian originated from the Mexican highlands in the north, this trade helped expand and complicate the trade routes in Mesoamerica.

Trading helped the Olmec expand its urban centres, such as San Lorenzo and La Venta, and most of the Olmec people lived in small villages, and the cities were reserved for the Elite and for ceremonial purposes.

Most of the Olmec lived in small villages with a pit to store root vegetables.
They lived in lean-tos, which are like small tents; they may have also had gardens, which allowed them to grow herbs either for food or medicinal purposes, such as sunflowers.

Often growing crops like maize, beans, sweet potatoes, cotton and squashes, often using the slash and burn method, which means that all the little crops are slashed and burned to make way for new crops to grow.

Unfortunately, the Religion of the Olmec wasn't written down compared to other civilisations.
We do know that they had their gods, their deities, followed natural things such as a bird creature which looked like a harpy eagle, meant to symbolise kingship and ruling.
The Olmec dragon, which was noted to have eyebrows with flames, a forked tongue and a round bulbous nose. 

Their other gods, such as their Maise deity, the ware-Jaguar or rain spirit, and the fish or shark creature, which priests would make offerings at religious sites at San Lorenzo and La Venta.

They made their art via greenstone, which is a way of saying carved from green materials, basalt, jade and clay, making figures often human-shaped.

Their art was anthropomorphic, which means human-shaped; they were often made with motifs such as open hands and mouths. 
Something of note was the large Olmec heads, which were carved from boulders, made roughly before or around 900 BCE, and around 17 were found around Olmec excavation sites. They were often constructed with flat noses, fleshy cheeks and slightly crossed eyes.
They often also had hats or headdresses, which may have signified certain individuals in their culture. 

Pre-contact Americas

 Around 15,0000-16,000 years ago, humans settled in North America.
We have theories that they came from Asia via a land bridge that connected what we know as continents. 

These people spread all the way down to Chile as early as 14,500 years ago, then around 7,000 - 8,000 years ago, they were doing agriculture, which also during that time was also around when agriculture was appearing all around the world as humans were discovering how to grow crops. 

Around 1492, Columbus arrived in America, marking the beginning of the European colonisation of America.

Most believe that the native Americans were hunter-gatherers and that America was sparsely populated by them, which is far from the truth.
The population of the Native Americans during the time of Columbus, which was around 1500 BCE, was around 50-100 million in population. 
To put the population into scale, the world population was around 500,000 during the 1500s, which means that just the population of America was roughly 10% of the world population.

Other Famous civilisations, like the Aztecs, who were from the Mexica people, are ancestors of Mexicans.
And the Mayans, who we know as one of the longest-lasting civilisations in history, and one of the civilisations to use writing via the use of hieroglyphics and made what are now Mayan Temples.

Along with the Incas, who had extravagant buildings and social structures, it is believed that it was the largest civilisation of that time.

The Mississippian people were a North American culture, which is why the Mississippi River is named after them.
And their city of Cahokia, which is now near Saint Louis, had at its peak a population of around 40,000, and this was around the same time as the Indus Valley and the ancient Chinese civilisations.

The oldest civilisation in Mesoamerica is the Olmec civilisation, which we will discuss in the next post.

Along with the Olmec, there was also the Caral civilisation, which is now in modern-day Peru.
which some people say was the "first" civilisation instead of the others.
Strangely enough, the Caral civilisation is one that we are unsure if they farmed crops, since they were a maritime culture and maybe had gotten most of their food via fishing.

We believe that the Caral civilisation developed around the 4th millennium BCE, which, to put it into scale, is around when Egypt was being unified by King Menes.

The main idea is that the Americas were already developing long before the Europeans, because some people believe that only after the Europeans came and colonised America did the American people start becoming more of a civilisation.

After the European colonisation, within 150 years or around 1650, the American population declined from 50 million - 100 million to around 6 million.
Some people say it was because of a genocide, or diseases, that the Americans couldn't recover from that were brought over by the Europeans.

These were just sampled civilisations from the Americas; there were thousands of tribes spanning both North and South America.

Shang Dynasty in Anchent China

 The Shang dynasty during the second millennium BCE.

Roughly around the 16th century or 3600 years ago, located at the city of Yin, near what is now the modern city of Anyang.

Around the same time, the civilisations of Mycenaean Greece, Ancient Egypt and the decline of the Hittite Empire. 

One thing about the Shang dynasty is that they had a fairly advanced writing system; the Shang dynasty's scribes would write on the scapula of oxen, then heat it, and when it cracked, read the cracks in the bones to foretell the future.

As we know, the Shang dynasty was built around the Yellow River and the Yangze River, since that was where they could cultivate plants, ruled by Di Xin.

11th Century BCE, and when the Shang dynasty was active, there was a consort who is debated to have been "corrupted" Di Xin, named Daji, which made him less competent and more corrupt.

When the Shang dynasty ended, Di Xin was defeated in the battle of Muye, and he was defeated by King Wu of Zhou, starting the Zhou dynasty. The Zhou dynasty continued for another 800 years. 

They were people who were masters of bronze (an alloy of copper and tin) and used it to make weapons and bronze chariots that they would ride into battle.

It is according to legend that the earliest era in ancient Chinese history is known as the Mythical Period, during which the Xia dynasty ruled over China, and then, in 1760, the Shang dynasty took over.

We do not know when the Shang dynasty took over from the Xia dynasty; all we know from archaeological finds is that the Shang dynasty ruled China from 1766 to 1046 BCE.

During excavations in the city of Anyang, they showed us inscriptions on bones and bronze, which the Shang dynasty dubbed "dragon bones", which were written in a proto-Chinese script.

These scripts on the dragon bones give us insight into their daily lives and how they did things. 

Their agriculture, their systems of government, their medical treatments and much more were learned from these scripts.  

The Shang dynasty followed an interesting way of rule, by getting a council of advisers and other bureaucrats to run the governing body.

They also heavily used bronze, developed their own writing system, which they used on the dragon bones, and developed a more sophisticated irrigation system.

The Shang dynasty along the Yellow River had loess (which is pronounced as "less"), which is a type of soil that is fertile for growing crops. 

The Shang dynasty farmers made a large surplus of food, so that many people in the higher parts of their culture were able to develop more sophisticated art and technology.

Then, in 1046 BCE, the Shang dynasty was taken over by the Zhou dynasty, which was a "subject" under Imperial rule.

The Ancient Chinese also had things called Oracle Bones, which were bones that had "Prophecies" and divination of the future. Normally written on the shells or bones of animals, to tell the future, these were one of the ways that we found out about their civilisation through their writing.

The oracle bones were also used to write not just futures but also other things, and they can actually be read by modern Chinese speakers to a degree since the symbols are very similar to modern Chinese writing. 

How these Oracle bones would work is that the Chinese kings would take animal bones, and then they would write the date and their names on these bones, then they would take them and heat them up until they cracked, then they would interpret the cracks as an answer.

These bones were normally used in reading the future, too, often used to determine childbirth, crop yields and sending soldiers to war.

Nearing the end of the dynasty, these oracle bones were mainly kept for the king to use to tell the future and were not often used by the commoners.

They also made their own writing system that helped them improve their technological advancements. 

Using bones to write on, they documented eclipses and other events. They also used even and odd numbering in their texts. Around 1250-1150 BCE, there was a book named the I-Ching, which was centred around divination and fortune-telling.

The Shang also had advancements in music, most notably the Ocarina, a wind instrument. Flutes made from bones, bells, chimes, and drums were found at dig sites.

The Shang dynasty also used a lunar calendar, which they had trained astronemers to adjust the calendar throughout the years to maintain accuracy. They used this calendar to schedule crop harvesting and planting, and other tasks.

The Shang used tin, copper, and by combining them together, they made bronze, which was one of their technological advancements during their time.

They used this bronze in ceremonial and weapons. And since it was an alloy of two good metals, getting both benefits from both lets bronze be much stronger than both tin and copper. 

They made weapons from this bronze, along with composite bows, made with animal sinew, which are the muscles of animals, along with horns and wood, making bones much stronger.

Along with their composite bows, they also made chariots to ride into battle on; their bows were much smaller.

Because of this fact, and were able to be at the same strength as a full wooden bow, and due to their smaller size, the archers were able to carry these on chariots, which gave the archers a mobile place to shoot and fire arrows from. 

Due to them being at constant war during the expansion of the Shang dynasty, and their writings on the oracle bones telling us about the barbarians outside their kingdom, which they had quelled.

They would often capture resources and P.O.W. or prisoners of war, and they would enslave or sacrifice them in rituals.

Since chariots were a vital part of the civilisation, they also buried their nobles with their chariots and charioteers, and horses.

The early Shang dynasty's influence went further than its borders and capital, as their techniques for refining and making bronze were adapted by other civilisations, and the Shang also were able to obtain new crops, such as wheat, and new weapons, like axes.

But due to them being isolated slightly due to the mountains and ocean, and large deserts, they were able to develop separately from other civilisations of this time.

Their social hierarchy was separated by large walls, which the lower and common residents of the Shang dynasty would live on the outer wall, while the nobles, respected craftsmen and royals would live on the inner walls, giving them more protection.

It is said that when the first Shang ruler founded he city of Shang, around what is modern-day Zhengzhou, it was the proposed centre of the Shang Dynasty.

There were a lot more capitals than just the one near Zhanzhou, as the royals would have travelled between them, either for different food, political or religious reasons. 

Most of the political power would come from the king, as most of the authority is vested in him.

The kings would go on excursions around their kingdom to maintain order to make sure that the people working in the fields provided enough food for the walled cities.

In the city of Anyang, which is one of the capitals of the Shang Dynasty, near modern-day Henan province in China, archaeologists have found oracle bones that depict 11 Shang kings.

Anyang was a large city, and with a large population comes a large cemetery with thousands of buried bodies, along with 11 tombs, which we speculate housed the 11 kings.

Unfortunately, the Shang dynasty's structures were built with compacted mud and wood instead of stone, and their walls outside their cities were made out of compacted dirt.

These cities were made for religious and political reasons, along with a place to house their political parties, shrines, and royal tombs.

The border territories of the Shang dynasty were given 

Most of the elite class are given Fiefs, which are plots of land given by the king that must supply a certain amount of resources these fiefs had to supply to the main cities. The walled cities relied on these fiefs as a way of getting raw resources, these

The Shand dynasty used a feudal system, which is a system that relies on land ownership. These lands, which were given by birthrights, the acrosticates were based in Anyang, which is the main seat of government.

After the Shang King and the Aristocrats, the Shang Military, there are two subdivisions of the Shang Military: the Infantry, which are the foot soldiers. And the Chariot warriors who use horses pulled by Chariots. 

There was also a class of proto-bureaucrats; they had roles to keep records, mainly about ritual practices.

They were meant to keep an inventory of rituals and tributes coming into the cities, along with records about Bronze foundries (places where bronze is forged), ritual performances and managing construction projects.

Artisans and Craftspeople were also a vital part of the Shang dynasty as they were employed by the elites and the Kings to make for them luxury goods, both for their own usage and for ceremonial purposes. 

As we know, their largest export was Bronze to the elite class, which, when the kings and rulers would be buried, they would often be buried with varying amounts of bronze treasures, mainly wine vessels. These bronze accessories were discovered at excavations during 1920-1930 in the Anyang area.

Then, at the bottom of the social ladder were the peasants; they were usually the least wealthy, as peasants are.

They were the ones generally selling crops and farming.

They were often buried with aristocrats, which scholars thought was sort of like slavery, but some argue that they were more like serfs who worked for aristocrats, who were people who were tied to land.

When the peasants did their harvest, they would give a cut of their harvest to the aristocrat who owned the land that they worked on.  

Archaeologists found this out by examining the cemeteries, which would have varying levels of complexity and quality, which depicted the social structure of the Shand Dynasty.

The Shang's religion was very interesting as it was linked to their state and political power, and by the end of the Shang dynasty, only the king was the only one allowed to read the Oracle bones, making him essentially the head shaman.

The Shang religion is mainly Animism, which is the belief that all things have a soul and that Shamans can speak to the spirits.

They also had their gods, which were represented by different symbols like the sun, the moon, the dragon, the wind and the mythical phoenix and others. 

The peasants of the Shang dynasty would pray to these gods for bountiful harvests, and the Shang Dynasty would hold festivals to honour these gods.

The kings would believe themselves to be divine rulers and would consult the Shang god Shandi, who would give advice or wisdom.

The kings would use oracle bones to converse with their ancestors to make major decisions and to get information on future harvests, battles or hunting.

Something that archaeologists also found in their tombs and human sacrifices was Jade, which the Shang dynasty believed granted immortality and protected the wearer against Decay.

The Shang dynasty's aristocrats believed that their servants would serve them in the afterlife. Thus, similar to the more modern Ancient Egyptians, the servants would be killed soon after their masters' deaths so that they would still serve in the afterlife.

One tomb that the Chinese archaeologists found was that of Lady Hao. She was a consort (wife) of the Shang king who reigned around 1200 BCE. As evidenced by the bronze weapons found in her tomb, they found bronze weapons, potentially meaning she had ties to the Military. Along with other valuable artefacts, which may have been an indicator of her high status, this made archaeologists speculate the role of women in the Shang Dynasty.

Organization in the human body

Our bodies are very organised, because without them, we would die.

There is a hierarchy of organisation for our bodies, and they are: the Cells, Tissues, Organs, and Organ systems. 

Cells are the smallest unit of life on this planet, being small and specialised to take on tasks.
Tissues are large groups of specialised cells and often coat large amounts of space on our bodies, like the tissues in our mouths, and the tissues that form when we hurt we hurt ourselves, named scar tissues.

Organs and Organ Systems are for well, what they are named; these organs are often known as the Lungs, Kidneys, your Heart, and other organs. 

Organ systems are systems of organs that work together to perform functions. 

One of them is the respiratory system, which works so that you can breathe.
The respiratory system works is the diaphragm contracting to allow air to enter the nose, and the air flowing through the Trachea, which is the windpipe, then it goes into the lungs.

 

Acceleration

Acceleration is the speed gained over time; for example, a sports car is significantly faster than a normal car due to its enhanced acceleration.

The calculation is the change in Velocity divided by Time. The standard way of writing it is m/s, or meters per second.
If we simplify it, is it m/s^2 or meters per second squared, something to keep in mind is that both velocity and acceleration are different, as if we take a car and drive it on a road, and take photos every second and overlay them together, it looks like the car is getting further and further away each photo. 

This is an accurate depiction of what acceleration looks like. This style of diagram is named 'the oil-drop diagram' because it looks like an oil drop.

Another thing to keep in mind is that velocity is a vector, meaning it has a direction associated with it, indicating the direction in which the object is moving.
But if the object is slowing down instead of speeding up, then it is decelerating.

Plants and Animal cells

 Plants and animals are different, but the cells are very similar, with some subtle differences.

Plant and animal cells have a cell membrane, which is the protective wall around the cell, along with the Cytosol, which holds all of the small organelles. Such as the Nucleus and Mitochondria, which are in the fluid part of the cytoplasm.

There is also a big difference.
The plant cell has a 'cell wall' which is much bigger than the cell membrane and is what makes the plant rigid instead of floppy.

They also have these small green things, named Chloroplasts, which also come with the benefit that, making these plants green, they will convert sunlight into their own food and sugars for the mitochondria to break down for the plant. Mitochondria provide energy for the cell to move things in and out of the cell membrane, as it isn't a static wall and lets things go in and out while expending energy.

Hinduism, the ideas of Brahman, Atman, Samsara and Moksha.

Hinduism is one of the oldest religions in the world, dating back as far as 5,000 years ago or 1500 BCE.

There are some elements that come from the Vedic period and shape the core beliefs of modern Hinduism. It is believed that the roots of Hinduism come from an Indo-Aryan people native to central Asia.

Hinduism is a merged religion since there are many ways to practice Hinduism, such as the Sindhu in Sanskrit, the Hindus in Persian, and the Indus in Latin.

There are many differences in the religion; the people who believe the spiritual part is the most valuable are the Upanishads, which means 'coming near to', which people consider as their way of becoming closer to god.

Brahman is the 'reality' of things, the 'illusion of reality' is named as Maya, and Atman means the separation of reality. Atman is often associated with Brahman.

When you die in Hinduism, your 'Atman' gets taken to another reality, like a new Identity, like being reborn, and being different, and it is accepted that this is 'another life'.

The word Dharma, which, after a lot of time passed, was turned into Karma, meaning a sort of fate that if you do good or bad 'actions'.
You get good or bad karma, karma is how your actions will decide your fate when you get reborn.

Position, Velocity, and Speed

 Position is a location, using references as a scale on where it is, if we were to put a toy car on a road, we don't really know where it is, but if we put say, a pole on it's left, then we can use the pole as 0, and any number afteer is is positive and any number before it is negitive. 

Location is a "vector", which is a direction of travel. 
If the car were to move, say 225 meters in 3 seconds, and it started at 10 meters, what would be the formula for it? First, we need to know the distance, which is a simple minus 25-10, which gives us 15.
Second, we need to have another value, which is something called velocity, meaning how fast something is going. We know that it travelled 15m in 3 seconds,  so we take the 15 and divide it by 3, which gives us '5'. So it we can confidently say that the car travelled 5m/s or 5 meters per second.

Now we can discuss speed, which is how fast an object is moving. Speed is the distance divided by time, which in this question is 15/3, which gives us 5m/s. 
Keep in mind that these equations are applicable when the object is moving at a constant rate. However, if the object is slowing down or speeding up, they depict the average speed of the object. 

One thing to keep in mind is that speed is just a value; it doesn't matter what direction the object is travelling, it only matters how fast. While distance is for calulating 'distance' and is for when it is travelling back and forth with positive and negative positions. 

Niger

 This country is Niger, not Nigeria, these are two different diferent African countries, and the males put on a beauty pagent for female judges that can choose the winner and the female judge will sleep with them.

Niger is bordered by 7 other countries, Algeria, Mali, Chad, Libya, Nigeria, Benin, Burkina Faso, and is landlocked and takes around 1.3millionn square kilometerrs or over 500,000 square miles, split into 7 regions with the captial Niamey in the south west, and the second largest city being Zinder in the southeast and Maradi in the central.

95% of the population lives in the south, where all the roads are, with only one road going into the mining town, Arlit. 
In the northeastern part is the Saharan Region, which only uses dirt roads, and there is a military outpost which patrols the border with Libya. 

The road from Libya into Niger passes by the Kouru Arkenne airstrip, with two airports the Diori Hamani International Airpot, and Agazes' Nano Dayak, they are working with Benin, to make a rail line.

During Colonial times Niger's borders were kind of weird because for a time, because unnti 1921, half off Chad's land because of the borders being drawn by the French and other Colonisers.

Their landmarks are very small and hard to find since the majority is in the Sahara desert, like the UTA flight 772 crash site monument in the sand, hundreds of kilometres from any buildings. And the Tenere tree, which is the only tree in around 400 kilometres, until a drunk driver strangely knocked it down in the 70s.

Other historical or interesting landmarks are: 
The Nguigmi desert caravan town, the Maradi palace and grand bazar, the National museum of Niger, the Djado and Djaba ruins, the Agadez grand Mosque, the Ayorou hippo tours, the Gobero cemetery site which is over than 10,000 years, the cave drawings of Tituidit and Dobous, the Tuareg festival, the Timia oasis town, Kaoure Giraffe reserve, the animal store of balleyara, the city of Zinder which is the cultural captial of Niger, the Berni corner and Sultan's palace.

Cell parts and their functions

There are many things built out of cells, and each cell is made of smaller functions that are necessary for it to carry out its functions.

First is the cell membrane, which is the cell's outer wall and is what separates the insides of the cell from the outside environment. Inside the cell is the cell's Cytoplasm, a jelly-like substance that holds all its contents very rigidly.

Inside the Cytoplasm are something called Organelles, which are small, organ-like structures that can carry out their functions. If you look at cells, there are small bean-like organelles, which are mitochondria, which are the "powerhouse of the cell". These organelles break down sugar molecules to help power the cell.

The Nucleus is what holds all the genes of the cell, and sort of like computer code to the cell on what to do to survive or to reproduce.

Cells and organisms

Cells are the building blocks of life. All organisms are built out of cells. Many cells can do things such as remove waste, use and produce energy, such as red blood cells that are in our bodies, or cells that cover mushrooms.

Our eyes are not strong enough to see the small cells in living things; instead, we use Microscopes to see things with a closer lens. Organisms that are built out of many cells are multicellular, while single-celled organisms are unicellular. 

An example of a unicellular organism is the E. coli bacteria. By itself, it is made to reproduce, make and use energy, and take in nutrients, and multicellular organisms use many cells to carry out their procedures.

All cells come from other cells, meaning that they are created or reproduced by cells.

States of Matter

 There are 3 states of matter: Solid, Liquid, and Gas. There is a theory named 'kinetic' or 'Particle theory' that explains these materials or particles are depicted as inelastic small balls.

For solids, the particles in a solid have a lot of attraction so that they don't get pulled apart easily. These particles can vibrate, but because of their strong attraction to each other, the particles are in a fixed position and don't move. 
But if we heat the solid up, it causes the particles inside the solid to vibrate quickly, causing them to reach their melting point, and then they break free of their bonds to turn into a liquid, which has very weak bonds between its particles and has the property of being able to change its shape to fit its container.
If we keep heating the liquid up, the particles' bonds will keep decreasing until there is no strength in the bonds and causing the liquid to turn into a gas.

These gases are strange because, since the bonds are very weak, the gas can occupy any container you put it in.
But if we heat up the gas in its container, it can either do one of two things. For example, if we use a balloon, it will expand the container, but if we use something rigid or fixed, like a metal can, it will cause the heat to build up into pressure.

If we cool the liquid, the weak forms of attraction will cause the bonds to be fixed in place, and if we cool it enough, it can cause the liquid to freeze.

If we are in a closed system, the change in states of matter will affect its density since the different states have different densities, but the mass stays constant as it is the same number of particles 

Sanskrit in English

Many languages' roots come from Sanskrit, as it serves as a baseline, and languages like Hindi, Bengali, and Punjabi, as well as other Indo-European languages like Italian and French, and Germanic languages such as English and German.

Sanskrit is the oldest source of a "Proto-Indo European language", in history.
Words like "Matr" (Sanskrit for mother) and "Pithr" (Sanskrit for father) are used in the English language as ways to address one's parents.

"Na" being "No", and "Dwar" meaning "door". 

Often, when a word goes from Sanskrit to a Latin or Germanic language, it turns the 'p' sounds into 'th' sounds, and the word 'matr' turns to 'mother'.

In the Vedas, there is a sky god named Dyauspitr, whose the word 'dayus' means sky, while the Greeks have Zeus Pater, which is eerily similar to each other in pronouciation, and the Roman god Jupiter (which is the Roman version of Zeus, is 'Jeu-piter', all of these words sound very similar when spoken, and the Vedas has Indra, which is dubed as the 'king of the gods' being the son of Dyauspitr.
Indra has many qualities that are not associated with Jupiter and Zeus. Indra is the god of the sky and is supposed to throw bolts of lightning, which is similar to the Norse god of lightning, Thor. Indra also has a hammer that can also throw lightning, similar to Thor.

Fuses & Earthing

 When we use electricity, there are dangers to using it as it can cause fires, causing a power surge, and sudden changes in current, which are all dangers when handling electrical appliances. 

Ways to mitigate these dangers are with circuit breakers, fuses, double insulation, and grounded or earth wires.
Circuit breakers and fuses work in similar ways, but they have differences as they both cut power to the rest of the circuit when too much current flows through it. 

How a fuse works is that a live wire is connected by a thin metal wire that, when too much current flows through the live wire and, the fuse melt,s cutting power from the circuit and potentially saving the appliance from breaking or getting overloaded, and these fuses come in different ratings for different applications.

If we take an appliance that needs a 3a or 3 amp current, to add a fuse to it we can add a fuse that is 5a or 5 amps so that it will shut off the current to it if the appliance gets affected by a power surge.
Or if an appliance runs at 10a, then using a 13 or 12 amp fuse is necessary.

The reason why we use fuses is that its cheep and simple to use, thats why when we have appliances such as toasters and microwaves often have built in fuses in their plugs, one downside is that fuses are a one time use, meaning that once the fuse stops a power surge, it is permenently distroyed has has to be replaced. 

The other way to stop a current from flowing during a surge is via a Circuit breaker. Instead of being perminently damaged when a power surge happens, it instead "trips" which disconects it from the circuit so that no fuse is spent and can be used, thats why in breaker boxes when the power in your house trips, you can just flip a switch and have your electricity restored to your house.

One of the dangers of a power surge is that the live wire (brown) touches the appliance directly or the appliance's casing, which causes the appliance to be charge with electricity, one way to stop the acsedental shocks from the live wire touching the appliance is via a "earth wire' which is a wire that provides another path for the current that was previously flowing though the appliance to instead be 'grounded' and even if the live wire would be touching the appliance directly, the ground wire should protect you from getting shocked.

Another way is to double insulate an appliance, which basically means to add a non-conductive outer layer, which is most commonly plastic. If a device like a smartphone, tablet or appliance has double insulation, most of the time it doesn't need an earth wire, two layers to protect the user from being shocked

Molecular & Empirical Formulas

A Molecular formula is a type of formula that displays the formula of a molecule with numbers and letters. This formula's depiction of the molecules is more precise, but it takes longer to write. An example of this formula is Glucose, which is C6H12O6, meaning there are 6 Carbon atoms, 12 Hydrogen atoms, and 6 Oxygen atoms.

The empirical formula it is much simplier to write but lacks in complexity and detail that writing it in the molecular formula would allow.
For example, CH2O means that for every Carbon and Oxygen, there are 2 Hydrogen atoms.

If you want to turn an molecular formula to an empirical formula, the first thing we need to know is the ratios of the atoms, so let's take a molecular formula of Ethane, which is C2H6. 

To make this simplier and into a empirical formula we must first make the numbers smaller, so we can devide the C2H6. And Divide it by 2 to get CH3, so it is an easier forumla.

Lets now convert CH3, which is a empirical formula into a chemical one.
We are given the MR or the Molar mass which is equal to 30, so in this MR = 30, and the empirical formula and  

The Vedic Period

As we know, the Indus Valley Civilisation, which is now in modern-day Pakistan and northwest India, then in the third millennium BCE and then in the second millennium BCE starts its decline. We still don't know why it declined. Maybe due to a natural disaster, maybe a river that was vital to them or maybe climate change. We still don't know. 

The Vedic period was the era of the Indo-Aryans in South Asia, who migrated into the Indus Valley during its decline.
We get the name Vedic from the literary works called the Vedas, which is a Sanskrit word meaning knowledge. These Vedic people are the baseline of modern Indian culture. 

The important Vedas are the Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda, with Rigveda being the oldest of the group. Rigveda first appeared at the start of the Vedic period, around 1500 BCE, and it continued until around 1200 BCE, which is around 3,000 - 3,500 years ago.

They were cattle herders, and they may have been nomadic and were expanding beyond the Indus River Valley, to the whole of what is now the Gangetic plain in north-east India and Bangladesh. 
They did become farmers around what is the late Vedic period and started becoming more like a kingdom.

Then, the Hindu stories or Epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana, these stories or poems were originally told verbally, but maybe during this late period or after the Vedic period, these stories would eventually be written down.

Sanskrit is one of the oldest Indo-European languages on earth, and it is related to languages like Greek and Latin, and some Germanic languages like Danish, Norwegian and Swedish. Sanskrit is as old as Mycenaean Greek and the Hittite Language.

The first documented piece of the Indus Valley Civilisation is from the Vedas, and they had a word which is Sindhu, which may  have been mispronounced and misspelt to the point that it may have turned into the word Hindu, then the word Indus may have turned into the word India.

There were also social structures and classes, named the Varnas, such as the Brahmins which are the teachers, scolars and the priests, the Kshatriyas which are the kings and the warriors, Vaishyas which are the farmers, merchants and the artisans and finally the Shudas which are the labourers.

 

Nutrients

 Nutrients are very important; without proper nutrients, we would not function properly.

The common nutrients are:
Carbohydrates, Lipids and Proteins.
Vitamins and Mineral ions.
Fibres and Water.

Nutrients are gathered from the foods that we eat, let's start off with the most common ones carbohydrates, lipids and proteins, these come from our pasta, potatoes and breads, these carbohydrates are often very starchy, these carbohydrates give us energy which is used for us to move around and conduct chemical reactions in our bodies.

Next are Lipids, which are the other name for 'fats', found in fatty foods and oils. These fats are commonly found in seeds, dairy products, and types of oily fish. The difference between these liquids and oils is that oils are liquid at room temperature, but fats are solid. 

They also provide energy to our bodies, but compared to carbohydrates, this energy source is more long-term since fat can be stored for longer compared to carbohydrates. Fats are also inside our bodies, with it being a layer of fat to keep us warm under our skin, and they also keep our organs safe.

Proteins are commonly found in seeds, fish and meats, and legumes like beans and lentils. These proteins are needed for growth and repairing damaged tissues, but the amount of energy that they can provide is much less compared to lipids or carbohydrates. If we don't have enough of either, the proteins can suffice.

Vitamins and Minerals are different as vitamins are from living organisms like while minerals are from inorganic sources, like iron, which is needed much less compared to vitamins.
Vitamin A are gathered from eating leafy vegetables and livers, other vitamins like vitamin C from oranges or other citrus fruits are meant to stop you from getting scurvy, which happens when you don't have enough vitamin C and can cause your gums to bleed. 
Vitamin D is gathered from standing in the sun, as, strangely enough, the body makes vitamin D from sunlight, which is the best way to get it.
Other sources, via eggs and oily fish, the purpose of vitamin D is that it helps your body absorb Calcium.

This is a good segue to what Calcium is, which is a mineral, and is commonly found in milk and leafy veggies. If you don't have enough Calcium, then your bones will deform from a disease named Rickets.
Last is iron. If you have done the experiment where you crush up cereal, you will find small magnetic chunks of iron in the cereal, which our bodies need for helping red blood cells transport oxygen throughout the body.
If you don't have enough iron, then you might get Anemia, which is when the body can't transport enough oxygen to your tissues, and is a vital part of haemoglobin. This is found in foods like red meats, beans and spinach.

Lastly is Fibre and Water are also nutrients with their own purposes. Fibre is considered to be a type of carbohydrate, but the key difference is that we don't absorb it into the body, its purpose is to help food move through our intestines, which helps us not get Diarrhea or be constipated.
Water is important since 70% of our bodies are made of water, and is found in all drinks. certain fruits also supply us with water, like strawberries and watermelons. We need it for chemical reactions in our bodies, along with making urine, which is waste and sweat, to keep our bodies cool. 

In order to keep a balanced diet, we need all of the nutrients. If we take too little, then we might contract certain diseases, or if we eat too much, then we might have too much excess fat, so that we would become obese.

Instead of using Joules for energy, we instead write the energy that food gives us with calories, so the more calories the more energy, as stated above the amount you need varies to what your doing, if your doing sports then you might need more food or energy to gain back the lost energy when doing activities, or if your growing as children need lots of energy to grow, while the elderly take less since they don't have to grow, and if your pregnant than you need to eat more since your body is forming an infant. 

Plugs and wires

One important thing about electricity is the plugs and wires, and when you need to repair them, you might notice that the different coloured wires are inside a plug.

The power that comes from the national grid is the main power supply; the current of the mains is an alternating current with around 240 volts flowing into households.
Keep in mind that the voltage may differ between which goes into our sockets in our homes.

Three wires are in a plug: the live one, the grounded or earth wire and the neutral one, all with an insulating plastic covering the copper wires.

Now, the way we differentiate the wires so that we don't shock ourselves is through the colours. brown is live, meaning all the voltage flowing through the plug is going through the brown one and has a potential difference of 230 volts. The blue one is the neutral one that will complete the circuit.
And lastly is the earth or ground wire, which is a stripped green wire that stops the plug housing from becoming live and shocking us when we grab the plug.
It does this by giving the electricity an alternative output so that the power flows out instead of into the plug housing.

The reason why the electricity from the live wire (brown) flows through the neutral wire (blue) is that they have a 0 potential difference compared to the live wire, which has, in this case, 240 volts.
Now, since humans also have 0 potential difference, we can act as a neutral wire and get shocked by electricity, too. This is why sticking forks into plug sockets even when they are "off" can still shock you, and in general, sticking things into sockets is bad.

AC & DC Current

An Alternating current which is commonly referered as AC, which is a type of current that will alternate between a positive and negitive charge, and this charge will fluctuate between voltages.
If your house is being supplied with 240 volts then the AC current will fluctuate between 240v to -240v, and it will aternate between the voltages on a set timer.

While a direct current or DC current is either a positive or negitive charge, since the positive charge is consistant, the most common use is in which makes it good for cells and batteries.

We can get graphs of the potental difference from the current is via a Oscilloscope, which measures the potental difference a current is producing by displaying it on a monitor, these monitors display the current in a wave.